Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education Proceedings of ATEE Spring conference 2019 PROCEEDINGS OF ATEE SPRING CONFERENCE INNOVATIONS, TECHNOLOGIES AND RESEARCH IN EDUCATION, 2019 University of Latvia Press Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019. Rīga, University of Latvia, 2019. 718 lpp. EDITOR Linda Daniela – University of Latvia, Latvia SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Irēna Žogla – University of Latvia, Latvia Zanda Rubene – University of Latvia, Latvia Marta Kowalczuk-Waledziak – University of Białystok, Poland Austra Avotiņa – University of Latvia, Latvia Maurice Schols – Fontys University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Elin Birkeland Markestad – Inland University of Applied Sciences, Norway Bashar Zogheib – American University of Kuwait, Kuwait Maria Giulia Ballatore – Politecnico di Torino, Italy Otilia Clipa – Stefan cel Mare University Suceava, Romania Francesco Maiorana – Kansas State University, USA; University of Catania, Italy Xhevdet Thaqi – Public University “Kadri Zeka” Gjilan, Kosovo William Nketsia – School of Education, Western Sydney University, Australia Gunta Silina-Jasjukevica – University of Latvia, Latvia Daiga Kalnina – University of Latvia, Latvia Asta Rauduvaitė – Vytautas Magnus University, Education Academy, Lithuania Joseph George Mallia – Institute for Tourism Studies, Malta Liat Shalev – Levinsky College of Education, Israel Rudīte Andersone – University of Latvia, Latvia Arta Rūdolfa – University of Latvia, Latvia Santa Dreimane – University of Latvia, Latvia © University of Latvia, 2019 https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre ISBN 978-9934-18-482-6 Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s: a three-pronged collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Lana Frančeska Dreimane Understanding the Educational Rationale Behind Learning in Virtual Reality: a Historical Development Vignette . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Francesco Maiorana Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m: a Low Floor High Ceiling Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Bashar Zogheib Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study the Influence of Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Compatibility on Students’ Attitudes Towards Using Ipad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family and the Use of Smartphones and Tablets of 2–3 Years Old Children . . . . . 67 Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško Focus on Curriculum Transformation Through Educator and Student Attitude Development to Digital Competence . . . . . . . . . 82 Santa Dreimane Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development of Learning Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction of Modern Latvian Language and Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Annika Käck The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education: Experiences by Migrant Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi Digitalization as a Process of Assistance in the Transparency of University Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco Teach-Gym: Grow Your Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen Technology and Relationships in the Guidance Context: an Article Based on a Study of Sustainable Relationships in Guidance Situations Between Teachers and Students in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Andis Āriņš Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane An Application of the Modern Technological Solutions in an Order to Enhance the Process of Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Edmunds Vanags, Pavels Pestovs Development of Metacognition Awareness Scale for 10th–12th Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Anda Priedite Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Manuel Joaquín Fernández González Character Growth Mindset Enhancement in Extracurricular Activities: an International Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu Teacher Trainees’ Experiences of Inclusive Practices During Teaching Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Otilia Clipa, Valentina Juravle The Roles of the Online Environment in School–Family Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, Ilze Briška Reflection of Preservice Teacher Professional Performance for Promoting Transdisciplinary Learning in Primary School Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Daiga Celmiņa Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons . . . . . . . . . 312 5Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ Reading Literacy at 4th Grade? – Evidence From Iea Pirls 2016 Study . . . . . . . 323 Liene Ozoliņa The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction in the History of Latvia and the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė Writing (Text Creation) Development of Primary Students at their Mother Tongue Lessons: Teachers’ Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Sandrita Škėrienė The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach: the Shift Toward How to Think . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data for Instructional Planning in Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Lūcija Anoško Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children with Speech and Language Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia: Situation Analysis and Optimisation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Kristine Jozauska The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality of Teacher’s Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Araromi Maxwell Olakunle Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors of Senior Secondary School Students’ Achievement in French Reading Comprehension in Selected Secondary Schools in Ibadan Metropolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Zanda Rubene, Gunita Elksne The Contribution of Transnational Learning to the Professional Development of Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško Support Team for Children With Special Needs in Latvian Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 6 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane Grounded Theory Methodology for Understanding How Equine Assisted Learning Contributes to Adult Learning . . . . . . 464 Irēna Andersone, Guntars Bernāts Collective Music Making as a Developer of a Teenage Personality as a Whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča Towards a Context-Specific School Leadership Competence Framework: a Case Study of Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske The Professional Learning Community as an Organizational System for School Staff Development, School Change and Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional Activity Oriented Towards the Learner’s Wellbeing and Success . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Līva Goba-Medne Shifting the Focus of Professional Development: from Individual Teachers’ Competences to a System of Contextual Professional Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone Piloting a Teacher Competence Management Model in Schools . . . . . 536 Oskars Kaulens Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development at School: Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Liat Biberman-Shalev Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre-Service Student Teachers Review Their First-Year Reflective Blogs . . . . . . . . . 570 Dita  Nīmante, Maija Kokare Teacher’s Motivation for Master Degree Program in Educational Sciences in Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Dace Medne, Nora Jansone Ratinika Professional Mastery of Academics in Higher Education: the Case of Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 7Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai The Features and Types of University Students’ From the Viewpoint of Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Juris Porozovs Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics . . . . . . . 621 Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova The Impact of Native Language and Culture on Foreign Language Learning: the Case of Chinese Students Learning the Latvian Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 Jelena Stepanova Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU . . . . . . . . 645 Olga Zvereva Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension in Adult Education Curriculum by the Case Study of the Hospitality Business Toolkit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Austra Avotina The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation for All Levels of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods Mapping as a Tool for Biomaterials Study Content Harmonization With Significant Research Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Reinis Upenieks Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning in Continuing Medical Education: a Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 8 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Preface The book “Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019” includes research papers presented at the ATEE Spring Conference 2019 (http://ateespringconference.lu.lv) on emerging trends in technology-enhanced learning, on innovative educational ideas, and on how to facilitate learning motivation, transformative learning, integrative learning, constructivism and constructionism, novel approaches, and innovative educational solutions. The ATEE Spring Conference has been organized by the Association of Teacher Education in Europe and the University of Latvia biannually since 1997. At the beginning, it brought together educational researchers from just the Baltic countries, but nowadays the conference brings together researchers from all around the world to share their ideas, present their research outcomes, and discuss future research directions. In the present book, there are 52 chapters that are devoted to studies on the didactic aspects of technology usage; some are devoted to searching for ideas about how to facilitate learning, how to ensure knowledge construction in transforming the learning space, and how to meet social aspects affecting the acquisition of education. Educators must introduce various technological innovations to prepare students for their future, and they will have to deal with different technologies to make the learning process more interesting, keep students more engaged in the learning process, and, in order to improve motivation, facilitate self-directed learning. The conference offered the possibility for everyone to participate in the discussions on modern qualitative education, innovative ideas of smart pedagogy, the place and role of technologies in the educational process, and research challenges in order to evaluate the impact of innovations on the development of different competences. Innovative pedagogical methods, different technologies, and technological solutions have an immeasurable potential to broaden the range of methods applied in education, to promote learning, and to introduce changes in the pedagogical process. Innovations serve as a teaching assistant for sharing good practices, developing learning platforms, changing forms of cooperation, and ensuring a real-life teaching/learning process that places students at the heart of the learning experience. However, the greatest challenge is still how to help teachers personalize the teaching/learning content according to students’ individual needs and interests in order to ensure the possibility for all learners to improve their potential and to provide equal opportunities for all to support 9Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and promote their learning. How can we ensure that technological solutions serve not only as a source of help for the teacher to transform the learning principles but also facilitate pupils’ and students’ participation in the learning process in searching for creative solutions and in elaborating innovations? How can we verify that the change of learning forms is meaningful in the application of different innovative pedagogical methods and technologies? Which research methods should be used? The chapters in the book serve as a basis for further discussions on the development of educational science, on topical research fields, and on practical challenges. The book will be particularly useful for scientists in the educational field who wish to get acquainted with the results of studies conducted in countries around the world on emerging issues in the educational sciences. I am very grateful to all the authors for their efforts in the preparation of their chapters and for sharing their ideas. I hope that the book will contribute to the field and open up new lines of research, new ideas, and new concepts in order to develop new innovative solutions to make the world a better place. Professor Linda Daniela University of Latvia, Latvia 10 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 INTEGRATING EDUCATION, TECHNOLOGY, AND SDG’S: A THREE-PRONGED COLLABORATION Neus Lorenzo Galés Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Spain Ray Gallon Universitat de Barcelona, Spain ABSTRACT Social and technological evolutions are forcing changes in education worldwide. An important guide for such changes are the sustainable development goals (SDG’s) adopted by the  United Nations. SDG 17 calls for partnerships built on shared vision and goals. In this study, statistics reveal the  need, in adult education, for more strategic transversal skills, such as communication, interaction, networking, global international communication, and social participation skills, rather than formal instruction. A  case study is presented illustrating a  real example of how a  tripartite collaboration between schools, institutions, and enterprises can work to engage students around the  SDGs. The  project was a  virtual reality exploration of the  planet Mars, in which young adult students at risk of exclusion were engaged to collaborate, solve problems, and work toward gender equality. The authors correlate the case study activities to several learning taxonomies, and propose the basis of an action-oriented framework for developing a  smart pedagogy of digital transformation. Keywords: Smart pedagogy, Adult education, Sustainable development, Lifelong learning, Education technology, Artificial intelligence, Virtual reality, Serious games. Introduction Clearly, we are in a period of significant educational change. The social and technological evolution of this second decade of the  21st century is obliging us to re-examine our understanding of learning, and to modify our teaching processes accordingly. For the  first time, we have access to a large body of analytics data that can actually give us a concrete measure of where we are succeeding, and where we need improvement. The advent of artificial intelligence (AI) as an educational tool will provide us with much faster feedback than we have ever had before, but it will also render the  data we use much more complex. It will also provide the  possibility https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.01 Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... 11Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon. Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... of a  very fine-grained level of personalisation, in both the  learning offer provided to students, and the  feedback data received by educators. As an example, AI-driven facial recognition software is already being used in schools, both for security (Tate, 2019) and to monitor student engagement (Krithika & Lakshmi Priya, 2016). The ubiquitous availability of information using Internet search engines has already begun changing the  role of teachers from source of subject matter information to guide and facilitator through the  complex maze of today’s information-rich and technologically complex world. A  valuable model to help teachers with this daunting responsibility is the  set of 17 sustainable development goals (SDG’s) for 2030 adopted by the United Nations (United Nations, 2015). SDG 4 focuses on quality education, but to achieve this quality, it is necessary to teach about all the other SDG’s. In May 2019 the authors had the opportunity to present this study at the Spring Conference of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE) in Riga. The  data and reflections included here are the  result of the ir previous research, and call upon a case study on Catalan education (Spain). The  project in the  study was designed to detect educational needs among youngsters and illustrate how to respond to those needs, via a tripartite partnership between schools, institutions, and private enterprise (SDG 17) to foster the  educational objectives of SDG 4 and all the  other SDG’s. SDG 17: Partnerships The text of SDG 17 includes the following: A successful sustainable development agenda requires partnerships between governments, the  private sector and civil society… The  se inclusive partnerships, built upon principles and values, a  shared vision, and shared goals that place people and the planet at the centre, are needed at the global, regional, national and local level (United Nations, 2015). The shared vision and goals referred to in the  text are the  heart of the ensemble of SDG’s. If we want to optimize education to include the m all, a  tripartite partnership facilitates the  task greatly. Each member of the triad carries with it a set of “natural” SDG’s: • Schools: o SDG 4 – Quality Education o SDG 5 – Gender Equality o SDG 10 – Reduced Inequalities • Institutions (e.g. ministries, government agencies, NGO’s): o SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-Being 12 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 o SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities o SDG 16 – Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions • Private enterprise: o SDG 7 – Affordable and Clean Energy o SDG 8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth o SDG 9 – Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure Of course, responsibility is shared across the  board, with the  above list indicating the  lead sector. The  remaining SDG’s can be dealt with in education through the  synergy that comes from the  se three sectors’ collaboration. Demand for 21st Century Skills Although the re is no real consensus on which 21st century skills should be taught at school, the re is a wide agreement that those should be more than mere “school subjects.” The y must be understood as real “transversal competences” for solving complex problems and living together in a hyperconnected world (OECD, 2017). Communication, creativity and collaboration are among the most well- accepted characteristics of the  future digital citizen. When comparing the  skills that the  World Economic Forum defended in 2016 as essential in our modern world and the skills that The Catalan College of Economists proposed for empowering the next generations of workers, we find several correlations, as shown in Table 1: Table 1. Comparison among skills defended by The World Economic Forum and The Catalan College of Economists, as competences in demand (2016–2017). Comparison by the authors World Economic Forum 2016 Col·legi d’Economistes de Catalunya 2017 Complex problem-solving Creativity Critical thinking Complex problem-solving Creativity Decision-making Human Resources management Human Resources management Coordination & Networking Emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence Cognitive flexibility Decision-making Service orientation This double list includes skills connected to high level thinking processes (such as critical thinking and decision making), emotional and social growth (emotional intelligence and networking), and strategic behaviour 13Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon. Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... (human resources management). The  se are skills in demand both for lifelong learning and labour markets, and the y are part of the transversal personal and professional abilities that the  new generations should have in the  ir curricula. Often, this demand is not met through official adult education courses, and it can produce disaffection for lifelong learning and low demand for traditional adult education. In Catalonia, public adult education schools offer formal, certified studies. This includes basic literacies, levels of primary and secondary studies for young adults who didn’t succeed in regular schools, and courses for immigrants who did not complete studies in the  ir home countries. Adult education institutions also offer studies for students to prepare the  secondary education certificate, and the  access exam for vocational education. The  re is, however, no clear offer of transversal studies where adult learners can develop global skills, learn how to organise personal networking, or practice decision making. The authors of this article have reviewed the official data for adult education in Catalonia, and compared the  specific demand for instructional education, cross curricular learning, and global skills for lifelong learning. Data for adult education in Catalonia is public and available on the  Statistics web of the  Department of Education, for courses from 1998 to 2018 (Departament d’Educació, 2019). Figure 1. Students in adult education, in Catalonia. Source: Departament d’Ensenyament. Subdirecció General d’Organització, Coneixement i Sistemes d’Informació. School Year 2017–2018 (publicly available data) http://ensenyament.gencat.cat/ca/departament/estadistiques/estadistiques- ensenyament/cursos-anteriors/curs-2017-2018/formacio-persones-adultes/ 14 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The  result is clear: the  current general formal education offer is far from including the  most demanded competences for the  new labour markets. This is not limited to adult education; universities are also trying to adapt to changing needs by collaborating with private enterprises (Gallon & Lorenzo, 2014, p. 132). In the  school year 2017–2018, the  overall global demand for adult education in Catalonia came from a  total of 61.859 student (37% from immigrant students and 63% from local students). This represents a clear decrease from 2016–2017 (64.332 students), 2015–2016 (68.005 students) and 2014–2015 (72.824 students). Figure 1 shows a clear decline of interest in official studies for adult education in Catalonia. Figure 2. Demand for cross-professional and social skills by young adults in Catalonia. Source: Departament d’Ensenyament. Subdirecció General d’Organització, Coneixement i Sistemes d’Informació. School Year 2017–2018 (publicly available data) http://ensenyament.gencat.cat/ca/departament/estadistiques/estadistiques- ensenyament/cursos-anteriors/curs-2017-2018/formacio-persones-adultes/ 15Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon. Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... In 2017–2018, the demand for general studies and access to compulsory education was only 27% of the total request. This includes official training for access to different vocational education studies and levels, together with preparation for the selective exams required to access other official studies. At the same time, 65% of the total demand was for more transversal studies such as cross-professional and communicative strategies. As Figure 1 shows, 38% included foreign languages and digital competences, and 35% were studies related to cohesion and social participation skills, including local language (Catalan), instrumental language (Spanish), and instrumental learning (competences at primary education level). The  se ratios show how strategic studies in communication, interaction, networking, global international communication, and social participation skills seem more attractive to young adults, and represent two thirds of the  total demand (Figure 2). Figure 3 breaks the  demand down by segment. It clearly shows that the combined interest in transversal and social studies for lifelong learning far outstrips the demand for traditional instructional learning and access to university studies. Figure 3. Demand for studies in adult education in Catalonia (segmented). Source: Departament d’Ensenyament. Subdirecció General d’Organització, Coneixement i Sistemes d’Informació. School Year 2017–2018 (publicly available data). http://ensenyament.gencat.cat/ca/departament/estadistiques/ estadistiques-ensenyament/cursos-anteriors/curs-2017-2018/ formacio-persones-adultes/ 16 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 In response to this demand, the Department of Education in Catalonia is exploring different strategies to present alternative content with digital methodologies. In the  2018–2019 school year, the  department started a series of case studies, collaborating with government agencies and private industry, to motivate students, favour engagement, and develop lifelong learning skills. The  y included workshops for vulnerable students using virtual reality (VR) and gamified activities. These activities were organised by the educational service devoted to kids with social needs, in vulnerable situations, and at risk of marginalisation. Case Study Activity: Workshop based on an adventure in a  3D videogame. The  mission of the  participants is to recuperate a  technological artefact that has fallen on the  surface of the  planet Mars. To accomplish this, teams must take into account the hostile atmosphere, questions of survival, management of technology, and the  ir dependency on one another in this environment. The  y must organise itineraries, solve problems, and take collective decisions about tasks related to basic skills and literacies (e.g. plurilingual communication, maths, map-reading, collaborative problem-solving). Participants: Students at risk of exclusion (one group of 16–18-year-olds, at low secondary level at a state school, and one group of 18–23-year-olds, in a state penitentiary school). Languages of research: Catalan and English. Place: A public secondary school, and a penitentiary school in Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain), Coordinating Institution: Subdirecció general de Tranformació Educativa, Direcció General d’Innovació, Recerca i Cultura Digital. (Catalan Department of Education). Provider enterprises: NetLanguages (experts in foreign language teaching), Humantiks (experts in Serious Games), and International House (expert organization in language teacher training and professional development). Other partners: Schools, Department of Justice (Catalonia). Overview: This experience represents a  tripartite partnership, where responsibility between schools and institutional administration is also shared with private enterprises, as outlined in SDG 17 of the 2030 Agenda. Teaching and Learning techniques: Collaborative work, task-oriented approach, problem-solving adventure, gamified routines in a  3D virtual reality. Hypothesis: The educational adventure, designed as a serious game, can empower gender equity (SDG 5) and it activates the leadership role of girls 17Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon. Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... in promoting peace and justice within the team (SDG 16). It demonstrates the  risk to life on land (SDG 15) and it allows students to explore ways to assure good health and well-being (SDG 3), among other UN-2030 sustainable development goals. Assessment: Participants and researchers applied qualitative analysis and action-reflection (satisfaction surveys, and interviews with students and teachers), and quantitative gender comparison of interests and skill development consciousness. Results of Research: Data shows that girls left the  initial leadership to boys, but once engaged in the  game, girls are willing to accept team- leadership to advise and direct the boys from a distance. Girls were initially reluctant to use the  VR glasses, and boys were more adventurous when using the m to navigate on Mars. Girls were more creative when exploring possible solutions for specific tasks. When using basic literacies and skills to solve the  given tasks, gender seems to have a  meaningful impact on different levels and kinds of assertive behaviour. Full collaboration is better accepted in mixed gender teams than in mono-gender teams. Teachers detected different patterns of self-regulation during the  3D-game than in ordinary classes. Both boys and girls declared that the y were aware of how important it is for the m to learn new digital technologies as preparation for future jobs. Both boys and girls were equally sensitive to issues of climate change and social inclusion, during and after the game. This type of activity provides multiple paths for exploring and implementing the  UN-2030 SDG’s in an educational context. It can also offer excellent opportunities for research. It helps teachers and institutions detect adolescents’ interest in learning about technology, it promotes digital professional development among educators, it generates initial analysis of gender preferences and attitudinal tendencies during collective debates, and it favours action-oriented team mediation among young citizens. The  se and other 21st century skills are widely demanded in the  labour market, and the y are necessary in adult schools, and very well considered by the students the mselves. More experiences should be developed in different educational ecosystems, and more studies of digital psycho-pedagogy and educational technology are necessary to develop a proper knowledge base of the state- of-the-art in smart pedagogy, related to readiness and acceptance of VR, and other emerging digital technologies at school, among teachers, families, and students (Lorenzo & Gallon, 2019) (Borawska-Kalbarczyk, Tołwińska, & Korzeniecka-Bondar, 2019) 18 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Theoretical Correlations The study of the  oretical correlations between different cognitive paradigms can help develop a  framework for smart pedagogy and digital transformation. The  most common pyramid of cognitive processes (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956) is widely used in education to explain high level thinking processes, to plan activities, and analyse educational proposals, in six levels of complexity (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation). The  revision of the  se levels, almost half a  century later, presented a  more dynamic approach, transforming nouns to verbs and changing the tip of the pyramid: remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create (Anderson, et  al., 2001). Comparing those two cognitive continua with more a modern pyramid of gamification, the highest concepts in the pyramid show similar levels of complexity (Werbach & Hunter, 2012). The alignment between the se learning levels can create an interesting analytical paradigm for educators, that provides reflection space for academia: a first level of explicit components (objects, ideas, elements), a  second level of mechanics (relationships, dependences and organic relevance) and a  third level of dynamics (social transformation, integral changes and ethical evolution). The se three levels correlate with explicit, implicit and meta-cognitive information, and can be used to describe assessment levels and evaluation challenges. Assessing and classifying personal experience and decision making using serious games (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) already provides a potentially useful way to develop social behaviour studies in virtual spaces. New sequences of activities and new pedagogical ideas can emerge when exploring teaching and learning hierarchies in correlation with ethical behaviour and well-being in the digital world (Marope, Griffin, & Gallagher, 2017). Marope’s UNESCO team has developed a  well-adapted representation of the  information continuum in education, that can be integrated into real life when learning about the world: 1. Remember Data 2. Understand Technology 3. Apply knowledge 4. Analise skills 5. Evaluate values 6. Create attitudes. A transversal overview the  se different learning taxonomies can offer interesting correlations, as shown in Figure 4. A complete chart would integrate artificial intelligence by adding the micro level of machine learning, and the meso level of smart technologies 19Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon. Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... to explain, apply, and transform future technology development in education. Table 2 presents the  authors’ proposed basic framework for developing a smart pedagogy of digital transformation, following the three domains of social cognitive development: explicit information, implicit knowledge, and abstract meta-reflection (Lorenzo Galés & Gallon, 2018, p. 26). Figure 4. Correlation between cognitive taxonomies and learning the ories Table 2. Proposals for a smart pedagogy framework – correlation between teaching and learning goals for transforming education. Source: the authors Smart Pedagy for Digital Transformation Students’ Cognitive Processes Teaching and Learning Paradigms Ethical challenges Level 3: To evaluate and encourage the transfer of sustainable transforming practices Create Creating attitudes Monitoring AI Dynamics (promoting Ethics)Evaluate Evaluating values Level 2: To facilitate processes and develop networks for building transformational education Analyse Analysing results Appropriate mechanics of Smart Technology (personalising teaching and learning processes)Apply Applying technology Level 1: To identify digital learning goals for transforming educational ecosystems Understand Understanding information Exploring the components of Machine Learning (avoiding bias, spotting defective algorithms) Remember Remembering data 20 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Future Challenges We should want to have AI behave at our best, not copy our worst. Martin Ciupa Throwing technology at educational processes will not give us a pedagogy that can claim to be “smart.” If we aren’t capable of coupling higher level thinking, serious analysis, and value-oriented actions to it, we’ll just have proliferation of means without meaning. The technologies that define the fourth industrial revolution, especially artificial intelligence, are so powerful that the  ir deployment at great scale automatically implies equally great social and economic changes. As educators, we have a responsibility to help our students understand the role of the se technologies, how the y fit into a changing world, and the ir use for achieving the greater good. This means that to identify truly transformative digital learning goals, we must be ready to face questions of cognitive bias in AI algorithms. For example, how should we intervene on an unjust algorithm? If it used statistical analysis to decide who would be a successful coder, an AI agent would most likely never pick a woman, because of the gender biases that exist today. This would not be a desired outcome for SDG 5’s aim of gender equality. Can we develop both algorithms and human methodologies for detection and verification of fake news? The processes inside deep learning algorithms are invisible, even for the programmers who created the m. Can we instruct an algorithm to reveal its processes, so that we can maintain traceability, and through it, accountability? Our facilitating processes must help us to personalise teaching and learning without isolating students in a  solitary digital bubble. If an algorithm is constantly encouraging a  student to work on problem areas, might it not miss an opportunity to facilitate the  student’s work in areas of strength and ability? We human educators must ensure that over- automation does not lead to systemic damage, simply because no one questioned the decisions of an AI agent. One of our greatest challenges, the n, will be to offer students the wealth of potential empowerment that AI represents, and at the  same time help the m develop the critical thinking that will allow the m to remain vigilant on questions of human-machine collaboration, the  balance between personalisation and community needs and values, or responsibility issues. Above all, it is important that the  use of the  se technologies, in education as in other aspects of professional and personal life, be imbued with a  humanistic, ethical purpose, connected to notions of sustainable development at individual and collective levels. 21Neus Lorenzo Galés, Ray Gallon. Integrating Education, Technology, and SDG’s ... A smart pedagogy for the digital age is one with head in the sky, and feet on the  ground. It’s a  pedagogy that helps students acquire the  skills the y need to thrive in 21st century society, regardless of what professions or interests the y pursue. And it’s a pedagogy that adapts to new relationships between humans and machines in a way that reminds us of our own best qualities, and encourages us to realise our greatest human potentials. References Anderson, L., Krathwohl, D., Airasian, P., Cruikshank, K., Mayer, R., Pintrich, P., . . . Wittrock, M. (2001). A  Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A  Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. Bloom, B., Engelhart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The  Cognitive Domain. (B. Bloom, Ed.) New York: David McKay Co Inc. Borawska-Kalbarczyk, K., Tołwińska, B., & Korzeniecka-Bondar, A. (2019). From Smart Teaching to Smart Learning in the  Fast-Changing Digital World. In L. Daniela (Ed.), Didactics of Smart Pedagogy (pp. 23–40). Cham: Springer Nature. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow. The  Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper-Row. Departament d’Educació. (2019). Estadistica de l’Ensenyament: Cursos anteriors. Retrieved June 16, 2019, from Generalitat de Catalonia: http://ensenyament.gencat.cat/ca/ departament/estadistiques/estadistiques-ensenyament/cursos-anteriors/. Gallon, R., & Lorenzo, N. (2014). Higher education and Globalization. In F. M. Ribeiro, Y. Politis, & B. Culum (Eds.), New Voices in Higher Education Research and Scholarship (pp. 114–147). Hershey: IGI Global. Krithika, L., & Lakshmi Priya, G. (2016, June). Student Emotion Recognition System (SERS) for e-learning Improvement Based on Learner Concentration Metric. Procedia Computer Science, 85, 767–776. Retrieved June 15, 2019, from Science Direct: https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050916306147. Lorenzo Galés, N., & Gallon, R. (2018). A  Social Constructionist Model for Human- Machine Ecosystems. In L. Daniela (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Constructionism in Modern Education Settings (pp. 25–50). Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global. Lorenzo, N., & Gallon, R. (2019). Smart Pedagogy for Smart Learning. In L. Daniela (Ed.), Didactics of Smart Pedagogy (pp. 41–69). Cham: Springer Nature. Marope, M., Griffin, P., & Gallagher, C. (2017). Future Competences and the  Future of Curriculum: A Global Reference for Curricula Transformation. Paris: IBE-UNESCO Global Curriculum Network. OECD. (2017, July). PISA 2015 Collaborative Problem Solving Framework (Revised). Retrieved June 16, 2019, from oecd.org: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/ Draft%20PISA%202015%20Collaborative%20Problem%20Solving%20Framework% 20.pdf. Tate, E. (2019, January 31). With Safety in Mind, Schools Turn to Facial Recognition Technology. But at What Cost. Retrieved June 15, 2019, from Edsurge: https://www. edsurge.com/news/2019-01-31-with-safety-in-mind-schools-turn-to-facial-recognition- technology-but-at-what-cost. 22 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 United Nations. (2015, October 21). Transforming our world : the  2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Retrieved March 30, 2019, from United Nations: https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20 Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf. Werbach, K., & Hunter, D. (2012). For the Win: How Game Thinking Can Revolutionize Your Business. Philadelphia: Wharton Digital Press. 23Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 UNDERSTANDING THE EDUCATIONAL RATIONALE BEHIND LEARNING IN VIRTUAL REALITY: A HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT VIGNETTE Lana Frančeska Dreimane University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Over the  centuries fast developing technology has always had the  power to transform learning and education in previously unimaginable ways, but even with an abundance of options, meeting the  needs of learners has become something of a  competition to provide meaningful and effective learning modes and designs. Currently learning is seen as an engaging process which provides experiences and allows learners to develop skills and competences of different cognitive, emotional and psycho-motor complexity. Indeed, analysing and understanding the  diverse needs of learners as well as designing the most effective stimuli for desired learning outcomes – being that topical or contextual knowledge  – has become pivotal for educators, instructional designers, researchers and learning technology engineers. Thus, in order to design VR learning experiences, as well as to effectively learn using VR technology, it is instrumental to fully understand the  educational  rationale behind learning in VR and the  affordances of VR space as a learning vehicle. This article presents a brief historical development vignette of the tectonic shifts in learning theories with the aim of providing a  comprehensive view of the synergy between the  theories that are most prominent in understanding the  rationale behind learning in VR, and through that to offer a roadmap for further research. This study is based on an extensive literature analysis of learning theories related to learning in VR, including, Constructivism, Constructionism, Technology enhanced learning, learning taxonomies for classification of learning objectives and development stages and instructional models. Keywords: learning theories, virtual reality, cognitive pedagogy, instructional design, education. Introduction For centuries education has been entrusted with the  responsibility of enabling individuals to access knowledge and practical learning experiences in order to become active and competitive members of society and through that to ensure further sustainability of those societies. Questions as of how to better acquire, transfer, collect and structure knowledge, skills and https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.02 Lana Frančeska Dreimane Understanding the Educational Rationale ... 24 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 competences have been part of society much earlier than the first academic attempts to understand their conceptualisation or definition. Through the process of creating multi-layered synergies and continuous disruption of the status quo – increasingly fast-developing technology has had the power to transform learning and education in previously unimaginable ways but, even with an abundance of options, meeting the  needs of learners has become something of a  competition to provide meaningful and effective learning modes and designs. Currently, learning is thought of as an engaging process which provides learning experiences and allows learners to develop skills and competences of different cognitive, emotional and psycho-motor complexity. Indeed, analysing and understanding the  diverse needs of learners as well as designing the most effective stimuli for desired learning outcomes – being that topical or contextual knowledge – has become ever so pivotal for educators, instructional designers, researchers and learning technology engineers. Thus, in order to design VR learning experiences as well as to effectively learn using VR technology it is instrumental to fully understand the  educational rationale behind learning in VR and the affordances of VR space as a learning vehicle. Since 1956, Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classifi- cation of Educational Goals (Bloom et  al., 1956) has been the  standard for the  systematisation and classification of educational objectives. Later, a former student of Bloom’s –Anderson together with Krathwohl published a revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy in 2001, proposing the use of verbs over nouns to define the  learning outcomes as competences or acquired skills and abilities. It must be noted that Anderson and Krathwohl considered creativity over evaluation within the  cognitive domain (Anderson et  al., 2001). Various taxonomies were developed by Instructional Design practitioners and researchers, such as Gagne’s taxonomy which defined five levels of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes, and nine events of instruction which corresponded to learning processes (Gagne, 1985). Gagne’s taxonomy classifies the  learning process in terms of the  degree of complexity of the  mental processes involved. In 2007, Churches further developed the  taxonomy proposed by Bloom, and Anderson and Krathwohl and published a Digital Taxonomy, which complements existing taxonomies of learning outcomes with six levels of digital skills (Churches, 2007). Since the mid-1950s and all through the 1960s there was an ongoing, yet pivotal shift in education psychology from teaching and towards learning. Learning has always been, and will continue to be, a  way for society or an individual to adapt to socio-economic changes as well as to foster them, thus creating a cyclical and ever-evolving process. An increased interest in learning also further steered academic discourse towards 25Lana Frančeska Dreimane. Understanding the Educational Rationale ... the  potential of learning environments  – both physical and social. Since the 1980s technology enhanced learning (TEL), often used synonymously with technology enabled learning (TEL) or technology enhanced education (TEE), have all gained increasing focus in the field of educational research. TEL was gaining its popularity in adult training as well as school classrooms, thus constantly pushing researchers and practitioners to look for more effective ways to apply existing learning models as well as to understand where TEL should be positioned. Since the early 2000s, one of the most notable shifts in education has been the increasing use of the ‘flipped classroom’ approach. This method of blended learning focuses on delivering the content outside the classroom, often characterised as self-paced online lectures, thus allowing the classroom environment to become the  primary platform for collaborative learning and further elucidation. The use of a desktop computer was further revolutionised by the rapid development of user-friendly technological advancement, thus further extending learning possibilities to online platforms, smartphones and tablets. These developments served as further stimuli for the advancement of digital learning content and its application and interaction in order to achieve learning objectives. There has been much discussion around the question of whether e-learning can and should completely replace traditional learning models. Thus, currently the concept of blended learning is at the forefront. “Blended learning designates the  range of possibilities presented by combining Internet and digital media with established classroom forms that require the physical co‐presence of teacher and students” (Friesen, 2012, p.  1.). These technologies have transformed learning and have changed its position from being a support tool (mainly for visual, audio and video materials), to it asserting itself in the central role as a method of content delivery. In addition, this evolution has affected content creation itself, as there has been an increasing need for interactive content which would aid memory and attention retention (especially in younger learners), learner- friendly layouts and structures as well as formats (e.g. video lectures). This need to interact in pair with the  constant battle against dehumanisation of the  learning process in turn has directed the attention of instructional designers to the  immense possibilities of computer-generated simulations, which have been used for complex learning skills in aviation, army, navy and engineering since the  1960s. These computer-generated simulations were an attempt to realise a presumption that a learner should experience a  stronger response (including memory and attention retention) to an experience, rather than to an abstract theoretical discussion of concepts, because, with simulation, (more precisely emulations) it is possible to fool the  brain into believing it actually has had the  real experience of 26 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 performing a task or having had a certain remote or new experience. Thus, the name of the latest technology, which is the focus of this study, comes directly from the  combination of two main attributing terms  – ‘virtual’ and ‘reality’. As defined by the Virtual Reality Society: “the definition of virtual reality comes, naturally, from the definitions for both ‘virtual’ and ‘reality’. The definition of ‘virtual’ is near and reality is what we experience as human beings. Respectively, the  term ‘virtual reality’ basically means ‘near-reality’. This could, of course, mean anything but it usually refers to a specific type of reality emulation” (2017). Virtual Reality has fascinated people since the 1950s (e.g. Heling and Sutherland) and since then it has increased its presence in our lives, not only through entertainment but also in the way it has affected and transformed medical procedures and services, first-response and the  military, engineering, architecture, businesses, sports, arts, and technologies. There has been a lot of excitement about the potential of VR technologies, and it must be noted that various ‘tech-gurus’ grew impatient during the continuous evolution of VR technologies and persistent attempts to make it accessible to the masses. One of the leading industries to be dramatically transformed by VR is education (Kapp, 2017 and CB Insights, 2018) and especially over the past decade, it is evident that VR indeed has transformed education in both senses: traditional classroom education and technology enhanced learning. Nevertheless, recent educational research does agree that there is still immense potential for further applications of VR for learning and the solutions it can offer (see Salzman, 1999; Kapp, O’Driscoll, 2010). VR is already showing its benefit to the flipped classroom model. For instance, Google Expeditions – a software that enables students to virtually travel to exotic locations, adding context to history and geography lessons. Companies such as Immersive VR Education are using dynamic storytelling to better help students to engage with their subject material. VR has captured people’s imagination and designers, developers, and enthusiasts have devoted countless hours to design, code and explore the possibilities of this exciting emergence of a long dream about the medium. Now there are various affordable and fast hardware systems such as Google Cardboard, Google Daydream View, the Oculus Go, Oculus Rift, Oculus Quest, Oculus Vive, Samsung Gear VR and HTC Vive enable consumers to experience high-quality VR first hand. Educational rationale behind learning in Virtual Reality Practitioners and researchers have been concerned with how learning takes place since the advent of civilisation. Just in the past two centuries a  significant number of theories on how learning occurs have been 27Lana Frančeska Dreimane. Understanding the Educational Rationale ... Figure 1. Development Vignette: Educational Psychology – Instructional Design – VR Technology, Author’s concept developed and introduced into educational practice internationally. In order to design VR learning experiences as well as to effectively learn using VR technology, first, it is necessary to look at the  existing theories of learning, proposed models of the organisation of learning and the main shifts in academic discourse that have taken place since the 1950s. To frame the  discussion and in order to illustrate the  tectonic shifts that have taken place in the  fields of education, cognitive psychology, instructional design and VR technology, a historical development vignette is proposed by the author, see Figure 1. Constructivism Constructivist theory was developed in the mid-20th Century by several prominent educators, philosophers and academics. Two of the  most prominent, which are often associated as synonyms of the theory itself, are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Although their theories differ on a variety of detailed principles, there is an intertwining set of general principles which are viewed as the general constructivist theory (See Fig. 2). Both theorists believed that learners generate new knowledge and comprehension through building upon previously existing experiences, and those interactions between the  experiences and the  new information serve the  point of ‘knowledge construction’ (Vygotsky, 1962, Piaget, 1976). Constructivism also argues that each individual’s set of experiences and prior knowledge is different and unique, and thus, knowledge construction for each individual or potentially a  homogenous group is different. Constructivism views learning as ‘active’ rather than ‘passive’; thus one of the most significant contributions of this theory is the  ‘learner-centred’ (sometimes also referred to as ‘student-centred’) approach rather than the  content-centred 28 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 approach to learning. In both Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s proposed approaches, educators have rather a support and guidance role rather than primary role of teaching new knowledge and skills and thus determining the course of a learning experience. Figure 2. Overlap in Constructivist ideas – Piaget and Vygotsky, Author’s concept Social constructivism, a  branch of constructivism, emphasises the importance of socio-cultural contexts of learning. Vygotsky believed that learning is dependent on social interaction and that ‘social learning’ actually leads to cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1962). Vygotsky emphasises the role of an educator as a support, guidance and scaffolding mechanism, as he believed that learners can perform tasks which otherwise they could not complete on their own, if given the necessary guidance or scaffolding, or alternatively through collaboration with their peers. This can be seen as a significant step towards experiential learning and instructional design in the  future, as Vygotsky’s model for teaching stresses the  importance of learning opportunities and indeed, their design. He also believed that the  type and quality of social interactions (culture, language, role-models to the student) determine the design and degree of development. Constructivist learning theory is rooted in the premise that learning is an active process, where through various supportive mechanisms (environment – both physical and social, information, guidance) learners develop connections with their prior experiences and knowledge and thus layer on or ‘construct’ the  new knowledge, skills and attitudes. For the  further development of 29Lana Frančeska Dreimane. Understanding the Educational Rationale ... learning in a  virtual environment, this shift can be noted as one of the, pivotal moments when the academic discourse of the early constructivists, such as Wittrock and later Bloom, shifts its attention from ‘teaching’ to ‘learning’. The  course-changing impact of Piaget’s theoretical ideas in educational psychology has in turn generated a great deal of research which has furthered our understanding of cognitive development and learning processes. Nonetheless, it also generated a  notable amount of criticism; for instance, Vygotsky and Bruner (1966) in contrast to developmental stages, defined cognitive development as a  continuum. Some later studies (Keating, 1979) critiqued Piaget, for neglecting the impact of socio-cultural environment on the cognitive development including the defined age ranges and development stages, and focusing only on the biological factors. Nevertheless, constructivism is based on similar founding assumptions about learning and is one of the  foundational theoretical inputs for learning in VR. There are two significant reasons why these theories serve as the foundation for this inquiry. First, constructivism places a great deal of importance on the creation of the  suitable environment for knowledge construction rather than for its mere transfer from educator to learner, as the theory advocates knowledge construction, not knowledge reproduction. Secondly, constructivism stresses the importance of collaborative learning. These aspects are key to application of these pedagogical theories in order to study learning in VR, as the  significance of the  learning environment and collaborative experiences, draws direct parallels with the  benefits of technology enhanced education including VR technology enhanced learning. Thus, this pedagogical framework will aid in designing and utilising VR learning experiences through learner engagement (environment) and prior experience based knowledge construction, thus facilitating the development of new knowledge and competences, such as critical and analytical thinking. Constructionism Constructionism theory, emphasises experiential discovery learning, where individuals or groups can learn and construct knowledge through practical, real-world tasks and experiences (Papert, 1991). During the 1980s Papert, who was also a mathematician, computer scientist, and one of the  artificial intelligence (AI) pioneers and educators, developed the  theory of Constructionism. Papert believed in learning by doing (Papert, 1980, 1993a, 1993b). He stressed that technology together with constructivist learning approach created opportunities for learners to construct new knowledge and new innovative ways of thinking. For Papert it was important to visualise the process of knowledge construction, thus allowing for more engaging experience. A strong parallel with constructivist theory is that Papert viewed learning as a  pro-active process rather than 30 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 passive as constructionism stresses enabling and learning versus teaching. Papert is often given credit for utilising technology in learning. Another strong similarity is a learner-centred approach to learning. Constructionism can be viewed as a  branch of a  constructivist learning approach, yet constructionism focuses on instruction rather than studies the  process of learning. If there is a  notable difference in the  two theories discussed, it is that constructivism rather stresses the  cognitive potential, whereas constructionism stresses the potential of the physical activity. “Constructionism can mostly be found being used as an educational tool in science and math classrooms, though it is spreading to other subjects as well. Today, there is an increasing popularity for robotic technologies used in the classroom. Specifically, there has been a focus on “white-box” digital tools, which teach the user or builder about the structure of the technology itself, in contrast to “black-box” software or technology, which conceals the method of its creation and is closed to any modifications by the user or builder” (Alimisis & Kynigos, 2009, p. 11). In order to highlight the synergy with learning in VR, it must be noted that, the  core statement of constructionism is that learning transpires through the  process of creation both individually or collectively and that creation and co-creation can be achieved due to the  affordances of the  learning environment. Both in constructionism learning theory and learning in VR it is pivotal that the  process of learning enables learners to have a close-up ownership over the  learning process and its outcomes, while the  educators and the  learning environment provide the  necessary guidance through scaffolding and feedback. Technology enhanced learning As highlighted in the Introduction, there is a variety of alternative terms used to discuss issues linked to technology and learning, however much of the discussion has been about how technology-enhanced learning (TEL) has been used, which is viewed as the application of ICT to achieve learning objectives. According to Salomon: “Computer-based learning environments are not learning environments to which computers have been added … Rather, these are relatively new environments in which computer-afforded activities have been fully integrated into other activities, affecting them and being affected by them” (1992, p. 252). This principle directly transcends to development and organisation of TEL, as there are similar considerations as well as benefits and limitations imposed by the application of technologies. Various researchers have asked how technology enhances the value of learners’ experiences. At the core of the TEL concept is the implication of a value ‘upgrade’ as a result of utilising 31Lana Frančeska Dreimane. Understanding the Educational Rationale ... technology for the  betterment of the  teaching and learning strategies. The description itself suggests that enhancement should be understood as a  value judgement meaning improved quality or added value. Moreover, several academics (Kapp, O’Driscoll 2010; Kirkwood, Price, 2013) have raised questions, such as: what exactly can and should be, or in particular instances, is enhanced when technology utilised? How can an enhancement be evaluated and monitored? These questions, as well as the  potential benefits and risks concerned with TEL approach are similarly relevant to learning in VR, as without a strategic understanding of how the affordances of VR learning environment can and should be utilised, as well as how to evaluate, potentially measure and analyse this enhancement it can be really easy to fall into technology fascination effect. Furthermore, many of the TEL instructional design and teaching strategies can be applied to designing VR learning experiences and teaching using VR technology. Taxonomies and classifications of learning outcomes Various learning theories have been discussed in the previous sections and it is vital to emphasise the  importance of the  existing knowledge in this field, as it will be used to further develop a theory for systematisation of learning principles governing learning in VR. There is a significant body of research available on the subject, yet for the purposes of this study, the following theories, ideas and classifications are explored and synthesised: Bloom, 1956; Gagne, 1985; Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001; Churches, 2007, Merrill, 2002, Kirschner and van Merriënboer, 2008. Some of the  ‘early’ taxonomies include: Bloom’s taxonomy (1956), the ADDIE model (1957), SOLO taxonomy by Biggs and Collis (Biggs & Collis, 1982) and Gagne’s taxonomy (1985). In order to address the various classifications and taxonomies, the term Instructional Design (ID) will be introduced into the discussion, as it is often defined as the principal objective of such taxonomies and classifications, and also because it is often used in literature as an inter-changing alternative for learning  – experiences, strategies, process mapping, management and monitoring. Various taxonomies developed by ID practitioners and researchers (e.g. Gagne’s Taxonomy (1985), and Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956)) further reinforce the roots of Instructional design, both as a concept and a practice, reaching from cognitive and behavioural psychology, through constructivism, constructionism and TEL. “Instructional design is intended to be an iterative process of planning outcomes, selecting effective strategies for teaching and learning, choosing relevant technologies, identifying educational media and measuring performance” (Branch & Kopcha, 2014, p. 77). 32 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The objective of ID, or instructional systems design (ISD), is “instructional experiences which make the  acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing” (Merrill, Drake, Lacy, Pratt, 1996, p. 5). The  practice includes analysis of the  learners’ (or groups) current setting and prerequisites, later mapping out the needs of the learner, defining learning outcomes and the overall goals, followed by a designed learning experience, often described as an ‘intervention’. Since the 1950s there have been approximately two hundreds instructional design models; however, conceptually, there are four conceptual models (Dick & Carey, Kemp ISD, Guaranteed Learning / IDLS, First Principle of Instruction, Complex learning) yet most of them were derived from the ADDIE model, which is based on five stages of instruction: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. One of the most renowned early models, developed by the Centre for Educational Technology at Florida State University for the  U.S. military sector – ADDIE was developed in 1975. Various taxonomies were developed by Instructional Design practitioners and researchers, including Gagne’s Taxonomy which defined five levels of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes, and nine events of instruction which correspond to learning processes (Gagne, 1985). Gagne’s Taxonomy classifies learning process in terms of the  degree of complexity of the  mental processes involved  (see Figure 3). Subsequently, Churches further developed the  taxonomy proposed by Bloom and Anderson and Krathwohl and published a digital taxonomy, which complemented existing taxonomies of learning outcomes with six levels of digital skills (Churches, 2007). Figure 3. The Gagne’s Taxonomy, Author’s concept Another significant direction for more contemporary learning models has been developed by Merrill, followed by Kirschner and van Merriënboer. The  First Principles of Instruction (Merrill, 2002) is a  model based on 33Lana Frančeska Dreimane. Understanding the Educational Rationale ... a synthesis of many earlier ID theories. The model focused on the aspects which were in common to the  various ID theories, thus establishing the fundamental essence of ID through a set of principles. First Principles of Instruction can be applied in a  Task or Problem-Centered cycle of instruction (see Figure 4). The  model draws close parallels with other task-centred instructional theories, such as Kirschner and van Merriënboer (e.g. Four Component Instructional Design Model – 4C ID) as it uses a real- world problem or task as an instrument for instruction. Students observe demonstrations of examples of real-world problem solving, then are given opportunities to solve real-world problems themselves, while supported through feedback. Learning in context is pivotal in both the First Principles of Instruction and the 4CID model, as context becomes the  core learning environment for deep learning. Figure 4. The First Principles of Instruction and the 4CID model, Author’s concept Works of Merrill (2002), Kirschner and van Merrienboer (2008) are of great significance to the  understanding of how learning in VR should be organised and utilised, for a two main reasons: 1. Merrill attempts to synthesise most prominent ID approaches and models, thus providing a  crucial impetus in presenting a comprehensive model for how learning takes place and to highlight the most effective ways to organise the learning process. 34 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 2. Kirschner and van Merrienboer’s 4C ID model presents a  blueprint for complex learning, which is real-world based problem-solving. The  model emphasises the  real-world setting and supporting contextual information as well as varying and with progress  – diminishing guidance to a learner. Thus, Merrill’s model allows understanding of the general principles of the creation of learning experiences, while Kirschner’s & van Merrienboer’s model, in fact, draws strong parallels with the principles often attributed to learning in VR, such as real-world simulation, contextual learning and varying guidance levels. Conclusion The theories explored in this study all have one central element in common – the potential of experience as an essential part of learning. Yet, it must be noted that there is no one single theory which would fit all, as there is no one form of learning that fits all objectives and all learners. Constructivism and constructionism provide the best theoretic foundation for understanding of learning principles that govern learning in VR. Thirdly, Constructivism, Constructionism and TEL all emphasise the  importance of a learner-centred approach to learning, where a learner takes an active role rather than a passive role. Next, the three learning theories, all emphasise the  crucial importance of the  learning environment thus accentuating the potential of VR technology application. Meanwhile, the literature on VR learning argues that VR provides unique opportunities for learners to access learning experiences that otherwise would not be accessible as part of their formal classroom based education, and thus through VR to take part in that learning experience as it would have been a first-person experience. For further research, a  more detailed cross analysis of aspects of VR learning ecosystem that fit with the  key facets of each of the  major 20th Century learning frameworks can be found in Dreimane, 2019 Virtual Reality Learning Experience Evaluation Tool for Instructional Designers and Educators In Daniela L. Eds. 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A  conceptual basis for educational applications of virtual reality (Technical Report TR-93-9). Seattle, Washington: Human Interface Technology Laboratory, University of Washington. Retrieved July 2018: http://www.hitl. washington.edu/publications/r-93-9/. 37Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 INTERDISCIPLINARY COMPUTING FOR STE(A)M: A LOW FLOOR HIGH CEILING CURRICULUM Francesco Maiorana Kansas State University, University of Catania, Italy Department of Pure and Applied Science Università di Urbino Carlo Bo 1506 ABSTRACT There is an international, 360° effort to sustain and support education involving citizens of every age, all educational systems (formal, not formal, and informal), all levels of education (from primary schools to higher education), all disciplines (from Math to Latin), and all stakeholders (from educational institutions to industries and businesses). In the paper, after reviewing the state of the art in Computing (C), Computational Thinking (CT), Computer Science (CS) and Digital Literacy (DL), a curriculum suited for a first course in computing, rooted in international frameworks and curricula, will be discussed. The work will present a detailed discussion of the content of a computing curriculum, suited for education across Europe, and its interdisciplinary applications. The curriculum can be useful for pre- service teachers’ preparation, teachers’ Professional Development (PD) and high school students. It develops along three strands: C, CT, and CS; DL used as a tool to document and present the  artifacts produced in the  C, CT, and CS projects, and soft skills introduced by contributions from leading researchers and educators around the  world. The  assessment practices, learning path, pedagogical approaches, and technologies, will be presented in order to aid teachers in their pre-service studies, PD, and daily teaching practice. Keywords: Computing; Computational Thinking; Interdisciplinary Computer Science, Teacher preparation; Subject Knowledge; Model curricula; Interactive ebook. Computing, Computational Thinking, Computer Science, and Digital Literacy There is an international, 360ᵒ effort to sustain and support education which involves: all citizens, starting from children at pre-school to grandparents; all education systems, from formal to informal and even non- formal; all levels of education, from primary schools to higher education and lifelong learning; all disciplines, from Math to Latin and Ancient Greek: all stakeholders, from the  education system to industries and businesses. Parallel to this effort, a  worldwide movement is striving to introduce the  study of computing (Luxton-Reilly et  al., 2018) from the  first day of https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.03 Francesco Maiorana Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m ... 38 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 school, alongside reading, writing and basic arithmetic, and sustain this study throughout the  life-long learning journey. This strong effort has produced a revision of mandatory state level curricula such as the Computing Curricula in England (DFE, 2013), the  Australian curriculum (ACARA, 2016), the New Zealand Technology curriculum (TKI, 2017), the Computer Science Teacher Association K-12 Framework (CSTA, 2016) and Standard (CSTA, 2017). In the USA, code.org (Code.org) has been one of the most important non-profit organizations pushing for the  introduction of CS across all states. In Europe, a  key role in this process has been taken by the  European Commission and the  European Schoolnet in cooperation with leading educational organizations such as OECD (OECD, 2018) and ACM Europe (Caspersen, et al., 2018). In this scenario, a question naturally arises about what are the competencies and skills that 21st-century citizens have to develop in their life. Among these competencies and skills, Computational Thinking (CT) (Wing, 2016)continues to plays a  key role (Bocconi, et  al., 2016), despite the long debate (Tedre & Denning, 2016) going back to the 1940s (Denning, 2017).  All disciplines could potentially benefit from CT in a vision advocating for a shift “from STEM to STE(A)M (where ‘A’ includes all other disciplines)” (Hazelkorn, et  al., 2015) bringing into the  educational loop all stakeholders, from educators to industries and Ministries of Education (European Schoolnet, 2016). In this, the  Scientix project (Baldursson & Stone, 2015) has a  leading role ensuring, among many other things, that “no teacher faces unaided the hard but most needed task of getting kids to know, like and dream about science”. According to the various operational definitions of CT (Csizmadia, et al., Computing At School, 2015), (Computer Science Teachers Association, 2011), (International Society for Technology in Education, s.d.) it is possible to argue that • CT can be interpreted as a transversal set of skills that can be used as a means to acquire and to develop broad competencies like the ones proposed in (Binkley, et al., 2012). • “more tools in the  mental toolbox seems like a  worthy goal” (Denning, 2017). In order to realize this world-wide effort it is necessary to leverage teachers, the  heart of the  education system, and by leveraging their pedagogical and professional experience, offer resources for filling content gaps that could be present when teachers have majored in a different field than computing. Pre-service (Blamire & Cassells, 2019), (Maiorana, et al., 2019) and in-service Professional Development (PD) (Morelli, et al., 2014), (Lucarelli, et al., 2017), (Maiorana, et al., 2017) represent another way to enhance teachers’ confidence in teaching computing. Other great examples of supporting initiatives of this widespread movement are represented by 39Francesco Maiorana. Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m ... informal and outreach actions offered by international movements and initiatives like CoderDojo (CoderDojo, 2013), Europe code week (Europe code week, 2014), and communities of practices like Scientix (Scientix, s.d.). All this effort has been supported by a  strong, international 50-year research effort documented in (Luxton-Reilly, et al., 2018), (Becker & Quille, 2019), (Medeiros, et al., 2018). In this process a tension in the school system is apparent: on one side the need to offer a quality and inclusive education accessible to all students (UNESCO, 2017), (Burgstahler  & Cory, 2010), (Burgstahler S., 2013) and, on the other, the necessity to increase the level of abstraction and cognitive demand in order to prepare the  students for the  higher cognitive skills required by the  job market (Manca, 2018), (Ferrari, 2013). The necessity of this synthesis is confirmed in many educational frameworks such as JRC (Bocconi, et al., 2016), the assessment in teaching of 21st century schools project (ATC21S) (Griffin & Care, 2014), Advanced Placement Computer Science Principles (College Board, 2017), Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA) (CSTS, 2016) (CSTA, 2017), Orga- nisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (OECD, 2018), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (UNESCO, s.d.) that highlight a  rich set of skills that students have to nurture. In this paper the author presents a curriculum suited for a first course on computing by highlighting the design principles, and the learning trajec- tories. The three principal strands of the curriculum, namely Computational Thinking, digital literacy, soft and social skills are then presented. An evaluation of the  proposed curriculum, a  discussion summarizing main lessons learned, and conclusions and further work considerations complete the work. Design principles The curriculum aims to offer content and learning materials for a first course in computing suitable for all teachers and their students which, with adequate motivation, can be supported in climbing the  learning pyramid from mere knowledge to creativity. The fundamental ideas inspiring the curriculum are: 1) A  low floor entry point suitable for all students and a high ceiling supporting the curiosity of all learners 2) Inquiry-based approach 3) Emphasis on design supported by many design tools 4)`Different expressive registers 5) Block based languages supporting high cognitive skills 40 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 6) Many programming languages with a common interface 7) Many advanced topics 8) Multiple learning trajectories that can be personalized to the needs of each student 9) Interdisciplinary applications 10) Multiple delivery media, e.g. book, interactive ebook, online course, etc … In order to reach the low floor, high ceiling goal we envisage a cycle in the design process involving unplugged activities (Bell, et al., 2015), design tools such as flowgorithm (Cook, 2015), visual block languages and puzzles with an increasing level of difficulty, supporting students in their problem solving process. The choice of using visual block languages leverages on the necessity, which has arisen from the  rapid technological growth and exponential growth of the amount of available information, to sharpen the high order cognitive skills sought after by today’s labor market (Manca, 2018). Visual block languages allow learners to focus on problem solving and high- order cognitive skills, avoiding the necessity to acquire syntactical details required by textual languages. Those languages become necessary when other considerations, e.g. efficiency of execution, are of primary importance. The learning material can be used for: 1) A first high school course on computing, e.g. for K9-K10 grade band (CASTA, 2016), (CSTA, 2017) 2) Pre-service teacher training without a major in computing 3) Teacher Professional Development (PD) 4) A  first undergraduate course for students majoring in fields other than computing, e.g. the humanities. The learning trajectories Figure 1 depicts the main concepts in the curriculum and how they are linked. The concept maps can be navigated along many routes leaving the  teachers the  possibility to adapt the  content to the  class and each individual student. We envisage a learning trajectory with a focus on developing CT. This will be produced by guiding students in acquiring a broad set of skills, useful not just to future computing professionals (Denning, 2017). The curriculum has the following strands: • Computational thinking • Digital literacy • Soft and social skills 41Francesco Maiorana. Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m ... Figure 1. Curriculum concept map The Computational Thinking strand The CT strand uses a  constructivist, student-centered approach grounded in cognitive theory/constructivism (Guzdial, 2018), and is based on the following activities: • Reading, tracing, modifying and designing programs and algorithms expressed by means of: – Flow diagram (e.g. Flowgorithm) – Natural language – Pseudocode Supported by activities requiring learners to translate from one representation to the others or to a visual block language • Coding: – deluge of block languages, to experiment with core concepts in computing – translating the programs into a textual language • Puzzle based learning: – algorithm design techniques: backtracking, divide and conquer, greedy, dynamic programming, invariant and so on. The coding is supported by a deluge of block languages that, by sharing a common interface, allow teachers to leverage on their peculiar features to present and reason around core concepts in computing. Teachers can use the  mutual support and reinforcement of the  different programming and design tools, plugged and unplugged activities to offer a rich variety. For example, for parallelism unplugged activities such as the one proposed in (Bell, et  al., 2015), (Tennessee Tech, s.d.) can support the  plugged activities. 42 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The author envisages in the curriculum the mutual support of plugged and unplugged activities, visual block-based and textual languages, multiple design tools to provide teachers and students with a  richer set of design methodologies, tools, and expressive registers allowing each one to find the one most suited to her/his needs. Table 1. A partial list of visual block languages used with a suggested progression and the key features of each language       Block language Key features Scratch (Resnick, et al., 2009) Easy to use. Movement, Pen, Control, Procedures Scrible (Lane, Meyer, & Mullins, 2017) Write on the stage. Create shapes NetsBlox (Broll & Ledeczi, 2017) Message with data. Distributed programming Snap! (Harvey & Mönig, 2010) Function. Recursion and functional programming. Parallel programming (e.g. map – reduce) Tunely (Trower & Gray, 2015) Multimedia data manipulation in one dimension Pixly (Trower & Gray, 2015) Multimedia data manipulation in two dimensions App Inventor (Patton, Tissenbaum, & Harunani, 2019) Event programming. Mobile app development. NoSQL database. IoT Cellular (Lane, 2012), Biological system simulation Blop (Federici, Gola, & Ilardi, 2014) Block language for C/C++. Step towards textual languages BlockPy (Bart, Tibau, Tilevich, Shaffer, & Kafura, 2017) Data manipulation. Automatic translation in Python Edgy (Cox, Bird, & Meyer, 2017) Data structures. Bridge between unplugged and plugged GP (Monig, Ohshima, & Maloney, 2015) Multimedia manipulation. Introduction to class without inheritance Parallel programming (Feng, Gardner, & Feng, 2017) Blocks for parallel execution The puzzle-based approach is a  leitmotiv of the  whole curriculum with puzzles proposed in all chapters and modules. Table 2 lists some of the  major algorithm techniques and the  puzzles used to introduce them. All the CT, and puzzle activities in the same module and across the whole curriculum, shows a progression from core to intermediate and advanced 43Francesco Maiorana. Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m ... with a  clear indication provided in the  companion teacher’s book. For students, an icon indication can guide them in choosing the  preferred activities. The  progression is supported by clear and sharp classification and progression provided in (Levitin & Levitin, 2011). Table 2. Algorithmic techniques with some examples of puzzles proposed in the curriculum Algorithmic techniques Puzzle Greedy Pearson, bridge crossing and lamps; Huffman code Decrease and conquer A fake among eight coins, fake coin detection with a spring scale; Divide and conquer Tromino puzzle, 2n counters in a nxn board Change of representation Two jealous husbands, Stack of fake coins, Drawing a figure without lifting the pen; sequence of words Dynamic programming Shortest path counting; Knapsack problem; Common subsequence, Palindrome counting Invariant Break a chocolate bar; Colour of last marble; Knight movements; domino and tetromino tiling Inference Sequence of facts and conclusion; Backtracking Four and n queens; CriptoAlgorithms & CryptoArithmetica Induction, proof of correctness Knapsack problem, divide a rect angle in triangles Figure 2. Sorting algorithm animations: a) Merge sort; b) Bubble sort 44 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 An inquiry-based approach is used to give the  students a  central role. Figure 2 shows a snapshot of two animations of merge-sort and bubble-sort. Students are requested to watch the animation and, before any educational intervention, are guided by a set of questions in discovering the algorithms behind this sorting processes. The set of questions goes into deeper detail in successive runs, e.g. midterm and final. A similar approach is useful for algorithmic techniques such as backtracking. Figure 3 shows an example of a  graph created with Edgy and its topological order. Figure 3. A graph and its topological order obtained with Edgy The Digital Literacy strand The digital literacy strand covers the following topics: – Conduct bibliographic research. – Being able to search, select, summarize, visualize and reference quality information. Particular emphasis is given to a  rigorous process with clear and objective indications for every step: from selecting the  search engine to selecting the  best key phrases, for judging the source of information, verifying it and so on. – Office automation. The  major suites for office automation are presented, both proprietary, such as Microsoft, and open source such as LibreOffice and OpenOffice. Emphasis has been given to online and cloud-based tools as a  way to hone collaboration and group work skills. To present the  suites, an explorative approach is suggested, asking the  students to find ways to accomplish tasks, either by exploration of the  interface or by searching through the  technical documentation. This is the  best way to cope with 45Francesco Maiorana. Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m ... different interfaces changing over device, over software and over time. The explorative approach is always preferred and the correct solution, e.g. the  sequence of steps to accomplish the  task is given at the  end of the  activities, frequently only in the  companion teacher’s guide. Interface design principles are given by comparing the different interfaces available in the different devices (desktops, tablets and smartphones) and by analysing commonalities both intra applications inside the same family of software tools and inter office suites. – Particular emphasis is given to searching, retrieving, analysing, visualizing and storing data. The importance of open and linked data is used as the key starting idea. Data are searched and retrieved and then analysed and visualized using Excel, Libre and Google sheets. – Finally, storing data in databases (both relational and NOSQL) is considered. Activities for designing and querying a  relational database and ways to visualize the  data via an ad hoc designed interface are presented and suggested. The difference with a NOSQL database are explored and practical mobile applications are designed and developed by means of App Inventor and available NOSQL database components. The soft and social skills strand The importance of soft skills as well as social skills is recognized worldwide. For this reason, these topics are discussed through contributions from leading experts to open a window onto the world for students, giving them the  possibility to compare the  experiences from different countries and cultures. Among the topics covered, to cite just a few, it is possible to recall: • Professional ethics • Informal education • Humanitarian Free and Open Source Software (HFOOS)  – Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) (Hislop, Jackson, & Ellis, 2015), (Morelli, et al., 2009) • Computer Science and its impact on society • Inclusive education • Mens sana in corpore sano (Healthy brain in healthy bod). Importance of sport • Sustainable development • Technologies and well-being Contributions come from leading experts from: Australia; Canada; Europe: England, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Spain, Switzerland; New Zealand 46 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and USA working in universities, international organizations, international institutions, enterprises. This contribution can be used as Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) activities for students learning English as a second language. Evaluation of results and discussion The content derives from several experiences described and qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated in different studies (Giordano & Maiorana, 2014), (Giordano & Maiorana, 2015), (Maiorana, 2019). The  positive effects of a first version of the curriculum have been evaluated by means of student progress on assessment evaluation and student survey (Giordano & Maiorana, 2015). Starting from the  2013 academic year, the  curriculum was iteratively designed, developed, deployed, evaluated and improved. Each year the  curriculum was field-tested in at least one class with an average of 25 students. Students, majoring in CS, where in either the first or second year (K9 or K10) of an Italian high school. The average female population was 15%. An average of 15% of students with disadvantaged socioeconomic status can be estimated. K9 students approached the course without mandatory prerequisites. For K10 students, a mandatory knowledge of basic problem-solving techniques and major programming constructs in an imperative language including procedures and functions were required. On average in each class, there were two students with learning disabilities (dyslexia or dysgraphia) and one student with special education needs. Curriculum effectiveness was qualitatively evaluated through student surveys and pre-test post-test assessment. When possible, comparisons with other classes in the  same school taught by different professors were performed. The  main conclusion that can be drawn from the  evaluation process is that overall  14/16 years old students at the  beginning of the  course tend to underestimate blocks languages, considering them too simple, useful for younger people, not teenagers. As the  progression of the topic becomes tougher and challenges the students, their appreciation of block languages increases since these languages allow the  students to easily reason on the  problems, construct artifacts and test them without worrying about too many details (Giordano & Maiorana, 2014). Teacher feedback was obtained from five anonymous teacher reviews regarding the  curriculum. The  reviewers were located in Italy and the  reviews were collected from mid 2017 to mid 2018. Other feedback was obtained from direct observations, informal unstructured teacher interviews inside a pre-service and professional teacher development course run in 2015. The teacher development course was attended by 40 teachers. Thanks to a  Google CS4HS grant, the  project run a  teacher workshop 47Francesco Maiorana. Interdisciplinary Computing for Ste(a)m ... where by means of surveys, and meeting with teachers the author obtained feedback about learning resources, teachers’ needs, and expectations, and features desired for a  curriculum. Analysing the  teachers’ feedback, it is possible to summarize the following key ideas: 1) On first impression, the  quality of the  proposed material and the diversity of the materials seem to disorientate some of them. For this purpose, indications of different progressions and a teacher guide offer a way to get acquainted with the curriculum. This guide can be used just as an ice-breaker; the experience and teachers’ knowledge of their students will allow them to navigate the curriculum and find the best activity suited for the next steps in the  zone of “Proximal development” for each individual student. 2) The ample diversity of communication channels and expressive registers, tools and technologies coupled with clearly stated progression and levels of difficulties allows for an inclusive and equitable approach. This approach is strengthened by an attention to learners with special abilities (UNESCO, 2017) in content delivery (edX, 2019). 3) The teaching approach sustained by inquiry-based pedagogies (Hazelkorn E., et  al., 2015), Peer Instruction (Porter, et  al., 2016), (Peer Instruction, 2019) and Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry learning (Education ambivalence, 2010), (Computer Science POGIL, s.d.) has the advantage of giving students an active role. By flipping the classroom (Bishop, Verleger, & others, 2013), (Karabulut- Ilgu, Jaramillo Cherrez, & Jahren, 2018) teacher-led and peer-led classroom time can be focused on problem-solving activities. Solving puzzles, engaging in projects (Blumenfeld, et al., 1991) and realizing artifacts to solve real world problems (Wolber, 2011), alone, in pairs and in groups allows learners to hone their collaboration and communication skills (Griffin & Care, 2014). 4) The interdisciplinary approach seems to be a  promising way to expose students to computing, especially in school streams (e.g. classical studies) where computing is not a mandatory topic. In this case, where there is a lack of teachers with a specific certification in computing, approaching computing with applications in the teachers’ and student’s comfort zones represents a low floor entry point. 5) Use of formative assessment (Giordano D., et  al., 2015), (Oates, Coe, Peyton Jones, Scratcherd, & Woodhead, 2016) supported by the above-mentioned pedagogies greatly supports students’ activities and teachers’ instructional process. Undergraduate students with a major in the Humanities (Maiorana F., Computational Thinking and Humanities, 2018), most of them exposed 48 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 for the  first time to computing, reported, after overcoming foreseeable difficulties, joy and fulfillment in developing real work applications related to their subject of study and future profession and appreciated the design methodologies, the  block language (Patton, Tissenbaum, & Harunani, 2019) and the possibilities to create mobile apps and sites showcasing their project portfolio. Conclusion and further work This work has presented the  content, assessment, pedagogies, techno- logies and equity of a curriculum suited for a first course in computing, e.g. K9-K10 students, pre and in-service teachers, and undergraduate students. The curriculum is enriched by video, animation, assessment questions, and a  companion website. The  curriculum has been evaluated and improved during a  multiyear and multidisciplinary teaching experience in high schools, undergraduate courses and informal education. A  synthesis of the  feedback received from students, teachers and reviewer and main lessons learned has been reported. As a  further study, the  author plans to fine-tune the  curriculum evaluation and improve it by leveraging different inputs, e.g. an inter- national teacher surveys (Falkner, 2019) publish it and fully deploy and publish the  companion web site (Maiorana F., Compucogito, 2019). The  curriculum will be enlarged by designing, developing, deploying and evaluating learning resources suitable for a second and successive computing course. These courses will leverage on multiple design tools and on the use of visual block languages, as design and scaffolding tools. 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SIGCSE, 11, p. 601–606. 53Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 USING STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING TO STUDY THE INFLUENCE OF PERCEIVED USEFULNESS AND PERCEIVED COMPATIBILITY ON STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS USING IPAD Bashar Zogheib American University of Kuwait, Kuwait ABSTRACT In this research an attempt has been made to test the  integration of constructs from the  theoretical models, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Innovation Diffusion Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, and Expectation–Confirmation Model in the  educational field. It particularly uses Structural Equation Modelling with various constructs to investigate students’ acceptance of using IPAD as a  technological tool in undergraduate math classes in a  Middle Eastern University. The  survey in this study contained 150 university students enrolled in various undergraduate math classes at a  Middle Eastern private American University, pursuing different fields of study. The  empirical results support the  theoretical model, it shows the  influence of user satisfaction, perceived usefulness and perceived compatibility on students’ attitudes towards using IPAD. Students welcomed the  adoption of IPAD as a  part and tool of the  learning process. Finding of this research along with the  ongoing research should encourage educators to put more emphasis on using technology in the learning process of mathematics. Keywords: TAM, User satisfaction, Math, IPAD, Educators. Introduction Integration of IPAD in teaching in schools and colleges has been popular in recent years. IPAD is one of the most advanced technologies in the market. It supports hundreds of thousands of applications, many of them related to education (King & Bass, 2013). According to Khaddage (2013), the touchpad technology use in the education market is dominated by IPAD. Although the pedagogical uses of IPAD is still not clear and the research on the use of the IPAD in education is very recent, many researchers claimed that the  advantages of the  IPAD overcome its disadvantages. However, the  research findings in this area, in the  postsecondary education are https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.04 Bashar Zogheib Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study ... 54 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 very scarce which is the main reason for conducting this study. Many of these scarce results support the use of tablets in postsecondary education (Kayapinar et  al., 2019 & Bluestein & Kim, 2017). According to Sachs and Bull (2012) using tablets increases motivation among students and encourages communication and collaboration among students and between teachers and students. Hutchison et al. (2012) reported that using tablets encourages the  communication skills among classmates and between students and instructors. It was also reported that tablets have significant positive effect on students with learning problems (McClanahan et  al. 2012). This paper aims to investigate the impact of IPAD use on students’ attitudes towards using this type of technology in undergraduate math classes. It proposes and empirically tests the integration of constructs from the Theoretical models, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Innovation Diffusion Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, and Expectation–Confirmation Model to use IPAD in undergraduate math courses. It aims at investigating and assessing the factors that determine the adoption of technological tools in mathematics among university students. It is believed that the findings of this study will help decision makers in higher education institutions to gain a better understanding of the factors that determine student’s adoption of these tools in classrooms and lead to a better implementation, investment, and benefit in the educational field. Recently, various papers have been published on the  context of application of TAM in higher education (Ifinedo, 2019; Zogheib et al., 2015; Teo, 2009, 2010, 2011a, 2011b). A number of studies have used TAM to examine learners’ willingness to accept e-learning systems (Al-Adwan et al., 2013; Shah et  al., 2013; Sharma and Chandel, 2013; Shroff et  al., 2011; Tabak and Nguyen, 2013) or to predict learners’ intentions to use an online learning community (Liu et al., 2010). Some papers focused on validating TAM on specific software which is applied in higher education. For example, Escobar-Rodriguez and Monge-Lozano (2012) use TAM for explaining or predicting university students’ acceptance of Moodle platform, while Hsu et  al. (2009) performed an empirical study to analyze the  adoption of statistical software among online MBA students in Taiwan. While some studies report that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use impact attitude toward technology use and behavioral intention to use technology (Rasimah et  al., 2011; Teo, 2011; Sumak et  al., 2011), Grandon et  al. (2005) argued that e-learning self-efficacy was found to have indirect effect on students’ intentions through perceived ease of use. Also, Mungania and Reio (2005) found a significant relationship between dispositional barriers and e-learning self-efficacy. They argued that educational practitioners should take into consideration the  learners’ dispositions and find ways through which e-learning self-efficacy could be improved. Sumak et  al. 55Bashar Zogheib. Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study ... (2011) found that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were factors that directly affected students’ attitude, and perceived usefulness was the  strongest and most significant determinant of students’ attitude toward using technology in learning, while Wu and Gao (2011) identified perceived enjoyment as a  factor in predicting attitude and behavioral intentions to the use of clickers in student learning. Based on TAM, Wong et al. (2012) explored the role of gender and computer teaching efficacy as external variables in technology acceptance in Malaysia. The authors found that TAM was adequately explained by the data. The model accounted for 36.8 percent of the variance in intention to use computers among student teachers. Theoretical Frame Work Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Among the  most popular models in technology acceptance research, the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) has been found to be a robust and parsimonious model for understanding the factors that affect users’ intention to use technology in education (Teo, 2012). In fact, TAM has become one of the most widely used models in technology embedded education research (Kılıç, 2014). What makes the TAM model widespread is its understandability and simplicity (King & He, 2006). TAM was developed by Davis (1986) to theorize the  usage behavior of computer technology. TAM was derived from another popular theory called Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) from the field of social psychology which explains a  person’s behavior through their intentions. Intentions in turn are determined by two constructs: individual attitudes toward the  behavior and social norms, or the  belief that specific individuals or a specific group would approve or disprove of the behavior. While TRA was developed to explain general human behavior, TAM specifically explains the  determinants of computer acceptance that are general and capable of explaining user behavior across a  broad range of end-user computing technologies and the  user population (Davis et  al., 1989). TAM breaks down the TRA’s attitude construct into two constructs: perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (EU) to explain computer usage behavior. In fact, TAM specifically explains the determinants of information technology end user’s behavior towards information technology (Saade’ et al., 2007). In TAM, Davis (1989) proposes that the  influence of external variables on intention is mediated by perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU). TAM also suggests that intention is directly related to actual usage behavior (Davis et al., 1989). 56 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Innovation Diffusion Theory Rogers (2003) defined compatibility as one of the  characteristics of innovation. It studies how innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, needs, and past experiences of potential adopters. Past research showed that compatibility demonstrated its pertinence to the  discourse on user acceptance of technologies (Chen 2011). TAM was combined with innovation diffusion theory to explain and predict intention to use technologies Chen, et al (2002). Many studies found compatibility as an important factor that affects students’ usage of learning technologies (Lai, et al 2012). The Expectation–Confirmation model Satisfaction and perceived usefulness are the  major blocks that were defined in the Expectation–Confirmation Model (ECM) which was proposed by Bhattacherjee (2001). Satisfaction refers to the extent to which a user is pleased with using a technology for a particular purpose (Liao, et al 2015). Student satisfaction is an important indicator of the  quality of learning experiences students received (Yukselturk & Yildirim, 2008). Hence, it is valuable to investigate students’ satisfaction with different technology used in the  learning and teaching process, as new technologies have altered the way in which students interact with instructors and classmates (Kaminski, et al 2009). Perceived usefulness is defined as the extent to which a person believes that using a  particular system will enhance his or her job performance, Davis (1989). Subramanian (1994) found that perceived usefulness had significant correlation with attitude toward usage behavior. This finding was later confirmed by Fu et  al. (2006) and Norazah, et  al. (2008) who found that behavioral intention was largely driven by perceived usefulness. Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) states that social and psychosocial factors influence user behavior. Self-efficacy is one of the factors that is considered in this study. It is perceived that is one’s belief in his or her ability to execute a  task or behavior (Bandura, 1986). Venkatesh and Davis (2000) found that self-efficacy acts as a determinant of perceived ease of use both before and after hands-on use with a system. Self-efficacy is considered as one of the  external variables in the  TAM model and it plays a  vital role in shaping an individual’s feeling and behaviour (Compeau & Higgings, 1995). Research on self-efficacy has been found to be a significant predictor of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (e.g., Hsu et  al., 2009; Macharia & Pelser, 2014; Padilla-Melendez et al., 2008). 57Bashar Zogheib. Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study ... Research Model and Hypotheses Development The research model of this study is presented in Figure 1. The following hypothesis are proposed based on the theoretical model: H1: Attitude has a  significant effect on students’ behavioral intention to use IPAD, H2: Perceived ease of use has a  significant effect on students’ attitude towards using IPAD, H3: Perceived ease of use has a significant effect on the perceived usefulness of IPAD, H4: Perceived compatibility has a  significant effect on attitude towards using IPAD, H5: Self efficacy has a significant effect on attitude towards using IPAD, H6: Self efficacy has a  significant effect on perceived usefulness towards using IPAD, H7: Self efficacy has a significant effect on perceived ease of use towards using IPAD, H8: User Satisfaction has a  significant effect on perceived ease of use of IPAD, H9: User satisfaction has a  significant effect on perceived usefulness of using IPAD, H10: Perceived usefulness has a significant effect on attitude towards using IPAD. Figure 1. The PLS research model 58 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Methodology Study Context and Participants The sample in this study consisted of 150 university students enrolled in undergraduate math classes at a Middle Eastern private American University. The  students were enrolled in the  academic years 2015–2016 through 2018–2019 in different classes (algebra, calculus, statistics, differential equations...), that were taught by the  same instructor. The  participants were admitted to the  university based on their high school grade point average. Students were pursuing different fields of study, for example, graphic design, communication, business, computer science, engineering, and some were undecided. Many students used IPAD for taking notes and using different math applications. Data were collected during the  last week of classes to guarantee that students had obtained enough experience with the IPAD before they answer the questionnaire questions. Measures The instrument used in this study uses a modified version of the original technology acceptance model (TAM) that was created by Davis (1989). In this study, the  combination of TAM and compatibility is used, and constructs were measured by indicators using a  7-point Likert-type scale. The compatibility indicators were “Using IPAD fit well with learning math,” “Using IPAD fit well with helping me to be efficient in learning math,” “Using IPAD is compatible with my learning math,” and “Using IPAD has provided me with a good opportunity to learn math”. The behavioral intention indicators were “I intend to check announcements from IPAD frequently,” “I intend to be a heavy user of IPAD.” The attitude constructs were “studying through IPAD was a good idea,” “studying through IPAD was a wise idea,” and “I am positive toward IPAD”. The perceived usefulness indicators were “IPAD would improve my learning performance,” and “IPAD could make it easier to study course content.” The  perceived ease of use indicators were “I find IPAD system easy to use,” “Learning how to use IPAD is easy for me,” and “It is easy to become skillful at using IPAD.” The  satisfaction indicators were “All things considered, I am very satisfied with IPAD,” “Over all my interaction with IPAD is very satisfying.” The  self-efficacy indicators were “I feel confident finding information on Apple webpage,” and “I have the necessary skills for using IPAD.” Data Analysis The statistical software Smart-PLS 3.1 that implements the use of partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) method was used 59Bashar Zogheib. Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study ... to conduct the  statistical analysis in this study. (PLS-SEM) is a variance- based method used to estimate structural equation models. Other well- known softwares such as LISREL and AMOS are covariance based that use the maximum likelihood approach to estimate structural equation models. The  advantage of using PLS-SEM lies in the  fact that no assumption on the distribution of data is needed (Cassel, et al 1999). Moreover, a sample size that is 10 times the largest number of indicators is required. The large sample size of 150 students will increase the  consistency of the  model estimations. The indicators in the proposed model are all reflective because they are considered as effects of the  latent variables (Bollen and Lennox, 1991). Tables 1, 2, 3 & 4 provide the  information on student gender, student age, student years of study and student marital status, respectively. Table 1. Student gender Frequency Percent Male 62 41.3 Female 88 58.7 Total 150 100 Table 2. Student age Frequency Percent Less than 18 15 10 18–25 26–30 More than 30 119 6 10 79.3 4 6.7 Total 150 100 Table 3. Student years of study Frequency Percent one year 31 20.7 Two years Three years Four years 74 21 24 49.3 14 16 Total 150 100 60 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 4. Student marital status Frequency Percent Single 116 77.3 Married 34 22.7 Total 150 100 In order to assess the  measurement model, the  composite reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity should be evaluated (Barclay et al, 1995). The  composite reliability estimates the  reliability based on the inter correlations of the indicator variables of a specific construct. It is recommended that the value does not exceed 0.95. Otherwise, the indicators will be measuring same information (Nunally and Bernstein, 1994). Construct reliability for all constructs in the model ranged between 0.910 and 0.951 as shown in Table 5. Convergent validity measures the positive correlation between an indicator and the  other indicators of a  construct. It can be measured by using the  average value extracted measure (AVE) that should exceed 0.5. Table 6 shows that all values in the model varied between 0.762 and 0.901. Discriminant validity measures the  extent to which a latent variable is distinct from other variables. One way to assess discriminant validity is by using the  Fornell-Larcker criterion (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). It requires that the  square root of each construct’s (AVE) be higher than all its correlation with the other constructs. Table 7 shows that all diagonal values (square root of AVE) are higher than those in their corresponding rows and columns. The results of the hypothesis testing are shown in Table 8. Chin (1998) recommended that Bootstrapping of 500 subsamples is to be conducted to test the  significant of the  t test. Ten hypotheses were tested, a  few hypotheses were significant at the  0.05 and 0.1 significance level while the majority were significant at the 0.000 significance level. Table 9 shows the path coefficients and the p-values. Table 5. Composite Reliability Model attitude (ATT) 0.932 behavioral intention (BI) 0.921 perceived ease of use (PE) 0.910 perceived usefulness (PU) 0.951 user satisfaction (US) 0.920 perceived compatibility (PC) 0.922 self-efficacy (SE) 0.943 61Bashar Zogheib. Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study ... Table 6. Average Value Extracted Model attitude (ATT) 0.851 behavioral intention (BI) 0.824 perceived ease of use (PE) 0.831 perceived usefulness (PU) 0.901 user satisfaction (US) 0.762 perceived compatibility (PC) 0.891 self-efficacy (SE) 0.878 Table 7. Latent Variable Correlation ATT BI PE PU US PC SE ATT 0.922 BI 0.505 0.908 PE 0.773 0.444 0.912 PU 0.821 0.461 0.745 0.949 US 0.674 0.588 0.646 0.671 0.873 PC 0.801 0.712 0.567 0.652 0.832 0.944 SE 0.563 0.489 0.832 0.674 0.782 0.882 0.937 Table 8. Hypotheses testing results Models’ coefficients P Values H1: ATT -> BI 0.195 0.088 H2: PE -> ATT 0.147 0.086 H3: PE -> PU 0.323 0.012 H4: PC -> ATT 0.753 0.000 H5: SE -> ATT 0.231 0.077 H6: SE -> PU 0.301 0.013 H7: SE -> PE 0.521 0.000 H8: US -> PE 0.502 0.000 H9: US -> PU 0.535 0.000 H10: PU -> ATT 0.401 0.000 62 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Discussion and Conclusion This research investigated University students’ acceptance of IPAD using the  combination of TAM, Innovation Diffusion Theory, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Expectation–Confirmation Model in the  educational field. Results revealed that self-efficacy have a positive effect on students’ perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and attitude towards using IPAD. Perceived ease of use is defined as “the degree to which a  person believes that engaging in online transactions would be free of effort.” For students, this means student’s perceived ability to handle technological applications in their math classes. Perceived ease of use affects perceived usefulness and attitude, perceived ease of use affects attitude and attitude affects behavioral intention. The  reported results are in line with what is found in literature and can be explained based on the motivational theory (Lee, et al 2005; Saade’, et al 2007; Park, 2009). Although the composite reliability values for some of the  constructs is close to 0.95, this is still considered acceptable. High values have been reported in the literature. For example (Yi & Hwang, 2003) reported values of 0.94 and 0.93 for the two constructs ease of use and enjoyment, respectively. Park (2009) reported a value of 0.93 and 0.94 for perceived ease of use and attitude, respectively. The reason for such high values could be that participants could not fully differentiate between the indicators of the considered construct. This issue could be solved in a future work by probably rephrasing the questions. Finding of this research should encourage institutions to put more emphasis on implementing more technological tools in the learning process of mathematics. In general, the  empirical results supported the  model. Probably, students welcomed the  adoption of IPAD as a  part and tool of the  learning process. Perceived usefulness as defined by Davis (1989) is the  extent to which a  person believes that using a  particular system will enhance the  job. The high effect of the perceived usefulness construct on attitude can be explained by students’ interest in IPAD and viewing it as useful technological tool that might enhance their learning. It seems that students are motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically as they seem to value the role that technological tools will play either on the personal level or on the social level. It is not only beneficial to them as students, but it will also please others, such as parents and educators, to know that such tools had a big influence on their education. Last but not least, this research study examined the applicability of an extended version of TAM to explain students’ acceptance of the IPAD as part of their enrolment in mathematics classes at university. The findings have great implications for educators and students all over the world as they shed light on the significant factors that 63Bashar Zogheib. Using Structural Equation Modelling to Study ... determine students’ acceptance of technological tools or platforms used in the math classroom. 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University student perceptions of technology use in mathematics learning. Journal of Information Technology Education, 14. 67Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PARENTING STYLE IN THE FAMILY AND THE USE OF SMARTPHONES AND TABLETS OF 2–3 YEARS OLD CHILDREN Daiga Kalnina University of Latvia, Latvia Armands Kalnins University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The aim of the  research is to identify the  interactions between the  parenting style in the family and the use of smartphones and tablets of 2–3 year-old children. Mixed-methods design was used for research including the  use of such research methods as literature analysis, systematic literature review, questioning of parents about the  parenting style, children’s playing habits and usage of touchscreen devices (about 30 children 2–3 years old) and a  case study (observation) about one child’s usage of touchscreen devices and parenting styles. As the result of research we can conclude that children are skilful users of a smartphone and tablet when they use the device regularly, but parents do not have time to work with children, i.e. parents teach the child a skill to prevent the child from disturbing the  parent. If a  child has the  opportunity to use a  smart device on a  regular basis, he or she becomes a  skilled user at a  level that allows a  smartphone and tablet to meet their needs without the help of a parent. Parents have different views on the impact of the use of smartphones and tablets on child development (positive, negative, and unaffected). Parents whose views are dominated by the perception that the use is positive or has no effect allow children to play with the touchscreen device more often and for a longer period of time and do not impose consistent rules. The habits and skills of using smart devices for children do not have a significant relationship with the parenting style. Keywords: Parenting styles, 2–3 year-old children, Smartphone, Tablet, Media usage habits. Introduction Technologies have rapidly entered our everyday life transforming the  traditional ways of obtaining information, mutual communication and even the  ways of children’s playing. Ten years after the  creation of internet the majority of adults living in the USA had at least once accessed https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.05 Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... 68 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  internet (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2000), but in 2012 already a third of the inhabitants of our planet had the access to the internet (Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2012). Since 2007 when the company Apple put iPhone in the  market, mobile phones started to be used for a  wide purpose and became the basis also for the development of tablets (McCarty, 2011). The research (Lynch & Redpath, 2014) states that iPad user-friendly design creates few technical problems therefore people quickly become enthusiastic and competent users. The  number of applications available in Google Play Store (before that Android Market) has increased from 16 thousand in December 2009 to 2 million and 600 thousand in December 2016. More than 60% of them are free of charge (Statista, 2016a; Statista, 2016b). The  number of downloaded applications has increased from one billion in August 2010 to 65 billion in May 2016 (Statista, 2016c). Children show interest in new technologies, especially in touchscreen devices. The  senior researcher of the  Paediatric department of Cork University D. Murray states that 80% of parents have touchscreen devices and 9 of 10 parents allow their small children to use them. Approximately two thirds have downloaded applications for their children (Touch-Screen Technology Usage in Toddlers, 2016). Although the  majority of parents allow their children to use the  touchscreen technologies they are worried about the  impact of technologies on the  children’s development. There is a  wide-spread opinion among parents that the  use of technologies is harmful for the child’s physical and mental health as well as that it hinders the  child’s development. Due to these worries, a  part of parents do not allow their child to use the touchscreen devices. The study performed in 2010 (AVG, 2011) revealed that although the majority of 2–3 years old children cannot swim (only 15% can swim), tie the  laces, prepare breakfast independently, ride the  bicycle (43% can ride), they know how to turn on the computer, to use the mouse, can play computer games and use the parents’ smart phones. Although researches are carried out in the  world about the  impact of technologies on the  children’s development, their conclusions are ambiguous: there are researches that enthusiastically support new media (incl. Galloway, 2009) and such that indicate that technologies have no place in early teaching (e.g., House, 2012). Besides, it should be taken into account that digital technologies develop very fast and thus the possibilities, way and aim of using technologies also change. The study performed in 2004 (Alliance for Childhood, 2004) connects the use of computers with the lack of creativity in later years, obesity and even higher risk of terrorism. The  authors of this article paper question the credibility of these conclusions taking into consideration how recently the computers have become accessible and common. The study from 2005 69Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins. Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... (Miller, 2005) points out that the use of technologies should be decreased to the minimum to promote such aspects important to the child’s development as playing outdoors, social interaction and cognitive interest. The  study performed in 2009 (Johnson & Christie, 2009), in turn, reveals that digital technologies serve as an educational means and is suitable in early childhood to make the child’s development faster. The authors of the study claim that worries about computers repelling children from traditional activities and communication with peers have no grounds. The  software adequate for the  development with open-ended content can promote playing, cooperation and creative solution of problems. The  authors of the study indicate that children need balance between playing in the digital and real environment. The fact to what extent the touch screen technologies are a part of young children’s life and to what extent they should be is the dilemma of today’s parenting (Cocozza, 2014), taking into consideration the accessibility and use of ever increasing touch screen technologies (George, 2014). The use of touch screen technologies is perceived as a  threat to what has been accepted as a  “normal” (Piaget, 1972) development. Parents are often worried that children could access inappropriate content (Byron, 2008). Thus, the  research problem appears which emerges in the  contradiction between the parents’ and children’s desires as well as contradictory studies about the impact of using digital media on the child’s development. The aim of the research is to identify the interactions between the parenting style in the family and the use of smartphones and tablets of 2–3 year-old children. Materials and Methods The sistematic literature review applying the  three phase model of Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers Manual (2014) was chosen for the data collection and processing. EBSCOhost Web search platform was used for the  research basis. Articles for the  analysis were selected applying the  inclusion criteria (any country, the  article in English, 2–3 year-old children, touch screen devices, use of the smartphone, tablet) and exclusion criteria (technologies are used for children with special needs, literature survey). Based on the  analysis of articles (Price, Jewitt & Crescenzi, 2015; Cristia & Seidl, 2015; Ahearne, Dilworth, Rollings, Livingstone & Murray, 2016; O’Connor & Fotakopoulou, 2016; Nevski & Siibak, 2016), a questionnaire was developed for parents. The questionnaire was spread in social networks in April and May in 2016 as well as sent by e-mail toparents familiar to the research authors. 30 respondents filled in the questionnaire. 25 or 83% of respondents were mothers, the rest were fathers. The questionnaires have been filled in about 70 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 children who are 24 to 44 months old, 22 children of them are 2 years old but 8 children are already 3 years old. 19 or 63% are boys and 11 girls. 50% of children live in Riga, 30% in another city, 10% in the countryside and10% do not live in Latvia, i.e., they are children of Latvians who have emigrated. None of the  children have eyesight problems, one child has posture problems. Parents give information about 2 children who cannot be drawn away from the digital device. The research had also limitations. Taking into consideration the  way of spreading questionnaires it was possible to reach only those parents who have access to the  internet and who use social networks. The  lack of the  second possible way of obtaining on-line data is the  respondents’ unreliability because it is possible that respondents gave socially acceptable answers (Paulhus & Vazire, 2007). The on-line questionnaire consisted of five parts. The information about the  child and the  person filling in the  questionnaire was obtained from the first part of the questionnaire. The second part consisted of 30 questions intended for finding out the  parenting style, based on the  theoretical understanding of parenting styles. The  third part had 11 questions about the  child’s habits of using the  tablet and smartphone. The  fourth part allowed discovering the parents’ rules and opinion about the use of tablets and smartphones by 2–3 years old children. To describe more profoundly and to understand the  use of a  tablet and smartphone by 2–3 years old children, and the  parents’ role and to observe the  introduction of the  suggested recommendations and the child’s actions with the touch screen devices as a result of introducing the recommendations, a case analysis was performed. The case study lasted for 6 months. A  35 months old child from the  Latvian speaking family where both parents have higher education was chosen for the  research. There is also an older daughter (14 years) and younger daughter (3 months) in the family. What the boy is able to do and willingly does with the tablet and the  smartphone, what the  parents’ rules are and what their reaction to the  child’s actions is, is described at the  beginning of the  research. After that the observation of the child continued and the development of his skills and changes in his interests in the  actions with the  tablet and smartphone was fixed. 71Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins. Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... Results and Discussion Description of the use of smartphones and tablets of 2–3 years old children Sometimes reading mass media, internet blogs and participating in discussions about today’s children and parenting problems there emerges an impression that nowadays children choose only to play with smart devices; however, the study results show that playing with the smartphone tablet occupies only the 6th place (mean = 4.93) concerning the popularity among seven types of playing. Children most willingly choose the activities in the  playground, such as swinging, sliding, playing in the  sand-box (mean  =  2.30). The  second place is taken by playing with traditional toys, e.g., dolls, cars, building blocks, and different sports activities, e.g., running, skate-boarding, ball games take the  third place. This disproves the widely spread myth that the most popular way of playing for a modern child is playing with digital devices – if the child is offered a possibility to engage in traditional plays, he/she most willingly chooses them. It can be claimed that this is a  myth that today’s children mainly play with digital devices and they cannot be separated from them. Thus, parents can be recommended to offer diverse possibilities of plays to their children balancing modern toys  – tablets and smartphones  – with traditional activities because children gladly choose such plays. If parents offer other exciting activities, then the child will not develop dependency from the virtual reality. Playing with the  tablet and smartphone is more popular among girls than boys (the mean 4.45 and 5.21, respectively). Playing with the tablet and smartphone is slightly more popular among three years old children than among 2 years old. 40% of children have started playing with a touch screen device at the age of 2, and 30% already being one year old. 16.7 % do not play with the sartphone or a  tablet. One tenth has started playing with them already before turning one year old, and one child has started at the age of 3. 23% of children have never played with a smartphone and 11% have never played with a tablet. The majority of children use the  smart device less than once a  week. However, 8 children or 32% use the  device almost every day (16% use the smartphone every day). Approximately a third of children use the smart device less than 20 minutes a  day but there are also children who are allowed to use it 1–2 hours a day. When playing with the smartphone or a tablet, the majority of children watch cartoons. When playing with the  smartphone, 28% of children play games, listen to music, 72% watch cartoons, e.g. YouTube, 88% look at photos, 32% communicate with close people, e.g., via Skype, 72 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 56% take photos, 16% do other things, e.g., watch videos from folders, adjust the sound volume, keep in hands while talking with the granny on the  phone, click all the  symbols, try to unlock, speak with grandparents when the phone is put to the child’s ear, look at the calendar or Instagram. A statistically significant medium close negative correlation (n = –0.405) was observed between the  child’s age and watching cartoons on the  smartphone, which means, that the  older the  child the  less he uses the smartphone for watching cartoons. When playing with the tablet, 36% of children play games, 68% watch cartoons, 16% listen to music, 10% look at photos, 20% communicate with close people, 32% take photos, 20% do other things, e.g., draw (3 children) and simply touch it because they yet cannot handle the tablet. A statistically significant medium close correlation was observed between the child’s age and the use of the tablet in order to look at the photos, which means that the older the child gets the more he looks at the photos. Children are rather skillful users of smartphones and tablets at the  researched age (see Fig. 1). For example, 11 children independently start the  selected game or application and 9 children choose the  cartoon that interests them or another content on YouTube. It can be concluded that children have mastered fairly well simple actions that, regardless the  content, are always performed in the  same way, e.g., unlocking the  device, adjusting the  volume. Selecting the  game parameters, e.g., the level of the game, heroes, etc., causes problems. This can be explained by the  fact that each game has it in a different place and different game parameters are offered. Figure 1. Skills of using the smartphone and tablet of 2–3 years old children 73Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins. Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... Parents’ rules and action in regarding the 2–3 years old children’s playing with the smartphone and the tablet Parents indicate that the  majority of children (64%) seldom have the  smart device at their disposal but almost a  quarter use it frequently. Comparing with the above analysed data about the children’s use of tablets it can be concluded that rarely according to parents’ view means 2–3 times a week or less. The convincing majority of parents (80%) often determine when and how much the child can play with the smartphone or tablet; yet 6 parents never do it or do it rarely. Three of the surveyed parents never state what exactly the child can do with the smartphone or tablet, e.g. which games he can play; hower, the greatest part (77%) often do it. Statistically significant close correlations (n  =  0.769) were identified between how frequently parents determine what the  child can or cannot do with the smart device and how long the child can play with the device. Parents who often determine what the child can do also often deterine how long the child can play with it. These answers, similar to the  study performed in 2016 in the  United Kingdom (O’Connor & Fotakopoulou, 2016), indicate that the  opinion about the ‘innocent child’ dominates among the respondents when parents perceive children as unprotected beings who need the  instructions and protection of the omniscient adult. Although the majority of parents never use the permission to play with the smart device as an award for good work, ten parents or one third do it. Eleven parents use the smart device for punishing forbidding the child to play with it if he had been naughty. Thus, according to behaviourism theories, the  possibility to play with the  smart device is used both as a  positive and negative reinforcement. However, parents should be careful and assess the  context for the  child’s naughtiness so that in case of punishment the child’s need for attention is not being satisfied because then unintentionally this naughtiness is being reinforced. A statistically significant weak correlation (n  =  0.379) was observed between using the  smartphone as an award and how often the  parent determines what the child can do with the smart device – the more often it is determined the more frequently it is used as an award. The majority or 73% of parents never change the rules and do not allow the child to play with the smartphone or tablet if the child whines or pleads but almost one fourth, although seldom, still change their rules and allow playing. Thus, the  child according to the  social learning theory acquire the manipulation skills and will apply them also later, e.g. when they will not want to overcome some difficulties in learning. 74 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 37% of parents admit that their rules about the use of the smartphone or tablet are seldom or never consistent and they are not explained to the  child. Unclear borders for the  child’s behaviour and demands set to the child, including the use of smart devices, can promote the development of such behaviour that parents find undesirable, e.g. whining and pleading for the change of rules, manipulative actions. Statistically significant weak correlations (n  =  0.397) were observed between how often the  parents’ rules are consistent and how often the parent determines the duration of using the  smart device  – the more frequently the  parent’s rules are consistent and explained to the  child, the  more frequently the  parent alo determines the  duration of using the smart device. Only 10% of parents have no rules and the  child can play with the smartphone or tablet as he wishes and when he wishes. This can be an evidence that parents trust the child’s choice and decisions or that parents are neglectful or that parents are convinced that the use of smart devices cannot harm the child. A statistically significant medium close correlation (n  =  0.571) was observed between how often parents have no rules for using the  smart devices and how often children have access to smart devices  – the  more frequently the  parents have no special rules and the  child can play with the  smart device as he wishes and when he wishes the  more frequently the child has access to smart devices. Statistically significant weak correlations (n  =  0.371) were observed between how often parents have no rules for using smart devices and how often the parent determines what the child can do with the device – the more frequently there are no rules the  more frequently the  parent determines what to do. This could mean that parents according to their mood or other factors determine what the  child can or cannot do during the  particular time of using the  smartphone or tablet. This can create confusion in children and the desire to manipulate. If clear borders and rules are not set during this age, the child might be unable to see the connection between the action and consequences and he does not develop clear and consistent habits of using devices. Almost half of parents consider that the  maximum permissibe time a day how long the child can use the smartphone or tablet is 20 minutes. One fifth of parents consider that children aged 2–3 should not use smart devices at all, and 7% of parents consider that the maximum time could be 2 hours. Two thirds of parents use the  smartphone or tablet as a  nanny’s substitute so that the child could give them some peace and they could rest or do some urgent chores, 13% of parents often do it. Such encouragement 75Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins. Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... to play with smart devices can also promote the formation of the computer dependency. Statistically significant medium close correlations (n  =  0.465) were observed between how often the  smart device is used as the  nanny’s substitute and how often the child has access to smart devices – the more they are used as the nanny’s substitute the more accessible they are. Assessing the  impact of using the  smartphone or tablet on the  development of 2–3 years old children, two fifth of the  surveyed parents consider that it positively affects the  child’s development, two fifths consider that it has a negative influence and one fifth think that it does not affect the child’s development. Statistically significant weak correlations were observed between the parents’ views about the impact of using smart devices on the children’s development and how often the smart devices are available (n = 0.380), as well as how often the parents’ rules ar consistent and explained to the child (n = 0.367). Children, whose parents consider that the use of smartphones and tablets at the age of 2–3 does not affect the child’s development, have access to smart devices more frequently. Rules are rarely consistent and explained to children, whose parents consider that the use of smart devices affect positively the child’s development. Thus, it can be concluded that parents’ understanding of the benefits and threats of using smartphones and tablets by 2–3 years old children largely determine the parents’ attitude to this way of playing. Parents who have a  dominant positive view (mainly the  benefits or do not see the  impact on development) do not set special rules about the  way or duration of using the  devices. In turn, parents who have a  dominant negative view (more threats to the  child’s development) have more rules, prohibitions and restrictions. Interrelations between parenting styles in the family and children’s use of smartphones and tablets The parenting style in the family was determined to the surveyed parents. Authoritative style was identified for 26.7% of parents, authoritarian style for 26.7% and permissive parenting style for 46.7% of parents. No statistically significant connections were identified in the  sudy between the parents’ parenting style and the child’s age in which he starts playing with the  smart device, how often and how long he plays with the smart device and games the child chooses to play. A statistically significant medium close negative correlation (n  =  –0.440) was observed between the  parenting style and watching cartoons in the  smartphone. Parents of the  authoritative style allow 76 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 watching cartoons more frequently than parents of the authoritarian style, and they more often than parents of the permissive parenting style. A statistically significant medium close negative correlation (n  =  –0.424) was observed between the  parents’ parenting style and the  child’s skill to connect the  device to the  charger. Children whose parents have a  permissive parenting style can do it worse than children who have authoritarian or authoritative parenting style in the family. A statistically significant medium close negative correlation (n = –0.410) was stated between the parents’ parenting style and the fact whether the parent’s rules about using the smart device were consistent and explained to the  child. Parents of the  authoritative parenting style more often have consistent rules and explain them than parents of authoritarian or permissive parenting style. Thus, it can be concluded that although there are observed some connections between the  parents’ parenting style and the  habits of using smartphones and tablets by 2–3 years old children it cannot be claimed that the  parenting style is the  decisive factor in the  formation of these habits and skills. It is rather the parents’ understanding about the benefits and risks related to the use of smartphones and tablets. As only one parent of child filled the  questionnaire, the  author can not reject the  parenting style as an insignificant factor because it is not known if the parenting style of both parents is the  same and how the parents share the  responsibility of bringing up children in the family regarding the rules and control over the use of tablets and smartphones. Results of the case study At the  start of the  case study it has been found that the  observed boy very early (before becoming a  year old) has had great interest in the  computer, smartphone and tablet. Parents have to hide these devices because he wants to use them, e.g., touch the  keybord of the  computer, and talk on the phone. Until 15 months of age he has been shown games, i.e., the child watches how the father or older sister plays computer games and rejoice at what they see on the screen. Such activities are performed at week-ends to shorten the  time, going to the  countryside as well as in the evenings of week days. Having reached the age of 1 year and 3 months the child is able to coordinate the hand and finger movements and to play independently such games as My Talking Ginger, Ant Smasher; parents just have to turn on these games. The child really wants to play the tablet, he has noticed where it is kept and tries to get to it in different ways. Having got the tablet, he does not want to give it back, cries and resists. If parents do not limit the  playing, he can keep playing for several hours without 77Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins. Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... a break and laugh loudly and rejoice at what happens on the screen talking with the images of the applications, getting angry if something goes wrong. Parents have suspicion that the child has developed dependency and they refuse to give the  tablet, also the  older daughter and father do not play games if the boy is present. The child whines for the first week and asks for the tablet occasionally but parents do not give it. After two weeks the boy does no longer ask for the tablet and chooses himself other ways of playing and creative activities. At the  beginning of the  case study (aged 37 months) the  child again has increased interest in touch screen devices and he spends many hours playing with them. Parents explain that during the last months of pregnancy and then continuing to work actively and participating in social events the mother offered the smartphone as a toy to the boy thus getting time for rest or work. As the child is often ill and stays at home the mother cannot do all the  intended works, therefore she gives the smartphone every day. Starting the study, the child is able to perform the following actions with the smartphone and the tablet: • talk with the  grandparents on the  phone. He can stop the  call pushing the red button on the screen, • willingly and with interest he chooses and uses game applications in the tablet (he himself chooses and presses the icon of the respective game on the screen). His favourite games are My Talking Ginger, My Talking Tom, My Talking Angela, Dumb Ways to Die, Magic Piano. The  main hero “talks” with the  player in the  first three games as well as it is possible to interact with the imge, e.g., to feed, to tickle, to brush the  teeth, to wash, etc. The  child especially likes to poke the image until it falls Iimitates violence) – stars that rotate around the hero’s head and the changes of facial expressions cause genuine joy and laughter, • watches cartoons and puppit films on YouTube, using the smartphone, tablet or PC. Parents have to open the  internet page and find the film following the child’s instructions. After watching the film in the touch screen devices, he himself chooses the next film or asks parents to find the next film in the computer. The favourite themes are cartoons and puppet films about trains (e.g., Thomas Train), films with children’s songs in English (e.g., Wheels on the  Bus) as well as educational films which teach colours, forms and construction of vehicles from parts, • uses drawing programmes in the  tablet. He draws with a  finger, dragging lines, and chooses the function to colour larger squares and chooses completed drawings, pictograms that could be added to his work. 78 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The child spends 2–3 hours a day playing with touch screen devices and the PC. Nine days after the  start of the  case study, the  small sister arrives in the  family. Mother, in order to feed the  baby without hindrance, eat herself, cook dinner for the family or do other house chores, gives the boy the  smartphone several times a  day to watch cartoons and puppet films. Parents have accepted this kind of playing because then there is silence at home, i.e., the sleep of the little sister is not disturbed, and at the same time the boy has the possibility to be together with the mother and little sister (see a  typical situation in Pict. 3.5.2). The  time the  child spends playing with touch screen device increases and now are 3–4 hours a day, 1–2 hours at a go. After three months the child already spends 3–6 hours playing with digital devices, watching something from 1 to 3 hours without a break at one time. The  child carries the  smartphone with him and watches it in any place. A  small difference in the  amount of using the  smartphone is observed when the child is together with his father. Father is less compliant to child’s demands to give him the  smartphone therefore then the  child uses the phone a bit less frequently. Mother notices that the  child has enlarged pupils of the  eyes that do not change for a  long time  – only next morning they have decreased to the  normal size but after 2 hours on the  smartphone they gave enlarged again. Half a  year after the  start of the  case study the  child chooses and performs the following actions which he could not do at the beginning of the case study: • selects the YouTube icon and turns on the application, • is able to find cartoons or puppet films of his interest, • is able to adjust the volume of the smartphone, • is able to connect to the  charger when the  notice appears on the screen that the battery is almost empty, • uses the touch screen board in the PC using it to perform the mouse functions, • watches cartoons and puppet films from the same theme group as at the beginning of the case study, also sings along and playing alone with toys uses phrases from the  films, sometimes using words in English in his speech because does not know them in Latvian, • plays the logic game Flow (has to connect dots of the same colour so that connecting lines do not cross), • plays the  construction game Bad Piggies (has to make the  vehicle from different parts that could drive along the  route) but does not perform a  purposeful construction  – only places together the  parts and laughs loudly when the vehicle crashes, 79Daiga Kalnina, Armands Kalnins. Interactions Between Parenting Style in the Family ... • opens the photo and video albums in the  smartphone and watches them, turns them with a finger by himself, • takes photos with the  smartphone. Usually takes 10–15 pictures of the same object at a go. Conclusions The use of smartphones and tablets becomes more and more wide- spread among 2–3 years old children therefore parents have to be aware of the risks and benefits assessing whether and how much to allow the child to play with the  touch screen device. The  parenting style can influence the use of the smartphones and tablets by 2–3 years old children but this is not the only factor influencing the use. The children’s habits and skills of using smart devices have no essential connection with the parenting style; however, a  trend is observed. Parents’ views on the benefits and risks of using touch screen devices have a  decisive role therefore it is necessary to inform and educate parents more about these issues. Parents who have a  dominant view that the  use of smartphones and tablets has a  positive impact or no impact allow children more often and for a  longer time to play with the touch screen device and do not set consistent rules. Children are skilful users of smartphones and tablets if they use these devices regularly but prents have no time to play together with children, i.e., parents teach the  child the  skill so that he does not disturb them. If a  2–3 years old child has a  possibility to use the  smart device regularly he comes a skilful user on such a  level that he could use the smartphone and tablet without the  parents’ help to satisfy his needs (to connect to the  charger, to adjust the  volume, to select the  application, to choose a  cartoon). Parents have to balance the  time allotted to the use of touch screen devices with other activities, e.g., sports activities in the  play- ground, playing with the  toys, reading the  books, creative activities, lively communication with parents and other people allowing to use the smartphone and tablet not longer than an hour a day thus decreasing the  risk of developing the dependency and ensuring a diverse experience for the child’s development. The generation of children who has grown up with the smart device as a natural part of everyday life and a toy will soon start attending the school. Further studies will show the  impact of the use of smart devices in early age on the child’s abilities to learn. 80 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 References Ahearne, C., Dilworth, S., Rollings, R., Livingstone, V., Murray, D. (2016). Touch- screen technology usage in toddlers. Archives Of Disease In Childhood, 101(2), 181–183. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2015-309278. 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Number of available applications in the Google Play Store from December 2009 to December 2016. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/266210/ number-of-available-applications-in-the-google-play-store/. Statista. (2016b). Distribution of free and paid Android apps in the  Google Play Store from 2009 to 2015. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/266211/ distribution-of-free-and-paid-android-apps/. Statista. (2016c). Cumulative number of apps downloaded from the  Google Play as of May 2016 (in billions). Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/281106/ number-of-android-app-downloads-from-google-play/. Information about authors Daiga Kalnina  – dr. paed., assistant professor of University of Latvia, Faculty of Pedagogy, Psychology and Art, member of COST Action IS1410 “The digital literacy and multimodal practices of young children” (DigiLitEY). Armands Kalnins – master of Pedagogy, specialist in IT and security systems, researcher of digital habits of small children. 82 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 FOCUS ON CURRICULUM TRANSFORMATION THROUGH EDUCATOR AND STUDENT ATTITUDE DEVELOPMENT TO DIGITAL COMPETENCE Irēna Žogla Rezekne Academy of Technologies, Latvia Svetlana Ušča Rezekne Academy of Technologies, Latvia Mihails Kijaško Rezekne Academy of Technologies, Latvia ABSTRACT Huge quantities of information processed through the use of digital technologies occupy an increasing place in education and trigger a search for understanding of the essence of speedy changes in order to capture the most productive ways of monitoring them. Investigations indicate that the  goals of education in general which dominated at the  beginning of the 21st century have shifted from an accent on disciplinary knowledge of facts to an in-depth understanding of scientific ideas and concepts and to higher order thinking of educators and students which are integrated with the  transformational impact of technologies. Curricula offer students innovative knowledge and tools for deeper understanding and implementing digital technologies, as well as emphasize the development of creativity (Chai, & Kong, 2017). Meanwhile, the educators’ attitudes to technologies that have become decisive educational tools differ across countries, cultural settings and universities. Even more, educators and students identify differences in their attitudes towards the  digital technologies and their usage. Much of the students’ possible success in digital competence development depends on the  educators’ attitude to the  evolving amount of technologies to achieve a  deep understanding of its transforming nature and appropriate changes of curricula. An effective usage of technologies for educational purposes, therefore, needs constant investigation to balance out all that constitutes the  inseparable parts of education at its tertiary stage and thus keep targeted the transformational process. The present paper uses the data collected by the project „Implementation of Transformative Digital Learning in Doctoral Program of Pedagogical Science in Latvia“ (LZP-2018/2-0180) to trace if there are any significant differences in educators’ and tertiary students’ attitudes to digital technologies (Gokhale et al., 2013; Hofstede et al., 2011) and competence development, that might interfere with the transforming nature of technologies and the improvement of the digital competence of students. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.06 Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... 83Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... The paper presents for discussion the  possible developments of the  didactic principles that form a background for creating a model of educators’ attitude development in further learning. These can be grouped around the  three quality levels of the digital competence, that highlight their essence and transformative character: (a) instrumental competence as an ability of completing one’s job, (b) mastery level of one’s competence and (c) educators’ expert’s level or even excellence in creative innovations that promote the  development of a tertiary institution or tertiary education in general. The foundations of educator attitudes to digital technologies and their usage are discussed, as well as the  transformational and transformative character of digital technologies that interfere with educator attitudes, general and unique qualities which a tertiary curriculum aims to nurture and that educator further learning helps to keep balanced. Data analysis and the  associated theoretical assumptions present a  theoretical and methodological background for further investigation by the  above  – mentioned projects. Keywords: educators, digital competence, attitude, gender and age differences, curricula transformation. Introduction Despite the growth of technology in universities, findings of investigations (Al-Musawi et  al., 2013) conclude that universities have been slow to bring e-learning into the mainstream and maximize the benefits of digital learning for students. Usually, investigations are directed at the  students’ digital competence and state that some of them still hold underdeveloped e-learning skills. The educators’ attitude towards e-teaching and e-learning also attracts the researchers’ attention and need to be considered to catch up with vast quantities of information which is suggested and processed through digital technologies. These occupy a  growing place in education and trigger the search for understanding of the most productive ways for their monitoring. We mention only some essentials to introduce this study: (a) Investigations indicate that the goals of education in general, and of computer sciences in particular, which dominated at the beginning of the  21st century have shifted from the  accent on disciplinary knowledge of facts to in-depth understanding of scientific ideas, concepts and high order thinking of educators and students that are integrated with the transformational impact of technologies. (b) University curricula provide students with innovative knowledge and tools for deeper understanding and implementing digital technologies, as well as emphasize the  development of creativity (Chai, & Kong, 2017), but the speedy progress of digital technologies, for instance, the 5G network (Segan, 2018; Hoffman, 2019) cannot be caught up to by the  slow development of educator digital competence, especially if competence is defined in stale categories and restricted by their attitudinal development in general. 84 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 (c) Meanwhile, the  educators’ and students’ attitudes to technologies as educational tools differ even within one university; educators and students identify differences in their attitudes towards digital technologies and their usage. Much of the students’ possible success in digital competence development depends on the  educators’ attitude to the  evolving speed and amount of technologies, as well as changes to the  study content and productive usage of the  available equipment to achieve a  deep understanding of its transforming nature and appropriate changes of the  educational process. Therefore an effective usage of technologies for educational purposes needs constant investigation to keep in balance all that constitutes the inseparable parts of education at its tertiary stage. The aim of the  research: to analyze commonalities and possible differences in the assessment of students’ and educators’ attitudes towards digital technologies, reasons for their usage, and, if possible, identify motivation to improve their digital competence in order to embrace possibilities of curricula transformations. The  researchers did not aim for a large number of respondents – it is more important to identify precedents and learn about the  character of students’ and learners’ attitudes if these provide opportunities to reach the appropriate level of competencies. Analysis of the  collected empirical data and associated theoretical assumptions present a  theoretical and methodological background for further investigation by the project that is mentioned above. The background knowledge The researchers employ the  definition which conceptualizes attitude as a  psychological construct, a  force or quality of mind, a  mental and emotional entity that inheres in or characterizes a  person (Perloff, 2016). According to Allport (1935), the  importance of educators’ and students’ attitude sits in the  specific nature and functioning of attitudes. Several qualities and aspects of attitudes – intercultural, creative, critical, autonomous, responsible (Ala-Mutka, 2011; Martin & Grudziecki, 2015; Redecker, 2018) conform with studies in the digital age and therefore are of special importance in curricula building: • numerous investigators confirm many aspects including a  mental association between an object of the  attitude formed and its evaluation (Fazio, 1989, 155), the  favor or disfavor expressed by evaluating the object of the attitude; • being related to motivation or a  state of readiness for activities, attitudes influence thoughts, feelings and actions, therefore are linked to a person’s core values; 85Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... • attitudes are never directly observable, but being real and substantial ingredients in human nature, they become impossible to account satisfactorily either for the consistency of an individual’s behavior or for the stability of any social or cultural context; • attitudes appear in actions, communication, and cooperation when learning by doing is an appropriate situation to demonstrate, share and further develop ones’ attitudes; • in the  mobile world with speedy technological progress, attitude as a human construct responds to the external changes through its accessibility – attitude is learned, comes quickly to one’s mind and influences decision-making. Due to these qualities, attitudes deserve to be investigated to address and develop educator and student responsibility, the quick targeted reaction to constant external changes, and for triggering curricula development. These peculiarities allow the  researchers to treat educators’ and students’ attitudes as an influential force which, if coupled with the transformational character of the digital technologies, should be used for targeted curricula re-direction towards effective tertiary studies appropriate for 21st Century creative autonomous learning and competencies. Several interrelated phenomena and categories often appear in documents and research that need to be acknowledged and used in education. These are digital competencies, 21st Century learning, appropriate curriculum transformations, and accordingly updated understanding of pedagogy, especially its constant and changable components (Žogla, 2017). The new educational possibilities of the  digital age challenge educators’ attitude development through encounter with new knowledge, identifying its importance, ways and targeted activities of introducing appropriate transformative innovations adequate to the students’ needs. Digital competence should be considered transversal and therefore need to be defined and treated appropriately to create tertiary and educators’ further learning curricula with a respect towards the role of competencies in attitude development and the power of attitudes to inspire competence development. Competencies are directly linked to student and educator success and their positive attitude to teaching and learning. Clear definitions (of attitudes and competencies) are needed on which to base investigations and education, to search for technology-based interactive devices and for systems to support learning even at the  tertiary level, which combines real and digital worlds (Sanabria & Arámburo-Lizárraga, 2016) regarding innovative services for human-computer interaction (Lytras et  al., 2016). Competencies are usually defined as a  system of knowledge and skills being implemented in activities or a system of professional and pedagogical competence leading to a quality of a transversal competence and facilitating 86 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 learners’ digital competence. It is most important that the  focus is not on the  technical skills and instrumental competence, rather, the  framework aims to specify how digital technologies can be used to enhance and innovate education (EC, 2019). The  transformative impact, speed, and scope of digitalization challenges educators’ and students’ motivation and attitude to technologies, developing the  educational process, and appropriate achievements. Under the auspices of the Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies of the  European Commission, digital competencies are conceptualized as a  broadly defined phenomenon that reflects one’ confidence, critical and creative use of information and communication technologies to achieve goals related to work, employability, learning, leisure, inclusion and/or participation in society (Ala-Mutka, 2011). For educational purposes and curricula transformations this general understanding of the digital competence structure challenges the detailed description of its components which must differ according to education, learner occupation, age and many other criteria, among which there are transformations brought about by the  constantly developing digital technologies. A conceptual model of digital competencies by Martin & Grudziecki (2015) provides some details of aspects of attitude (even if the authors do not distinguish between the aspects of content and character of cognition). These are the: intercultural, critical, creative, autonomous, responsible aspects. Attitudes include and demonstrate also the quality and content of its holder’s thinking and self-conducted learning that allows for distinguishing between levels of digital literacy. These are digital competence (skills, concepts, approaches, attitudes, etc.), digital mastery usage (professional/ discipline application), and digital transformation (innovation, creativity). The  model has prompted a  need to address the  pedagogical category of didactic principles, since a  university process still functions on the  basis of educator and learner value exchange within a  background of targeted communication and cooperation. Educators operate with the study content in its capacity as a pedagogical tool but students operate with the content in its capacity as a transformable object of their activities, as well as with digital technologies that allow for their transformational usage and even initiate transformations. The  essence of the  educators’ mission has not changed under the  influence of the possibilities and the  strong impact of digital technologies to enable students’ self-directed learning. These make educators change the character of their assistance; and this can be achieved by educator attitude change to digital tools, educational process with digital tools and transformations brought about by digital tools. 87Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... Another consideration is published by UNESCO (2014). This distinguishes between three broad categories of skills by addressing skill dynamics  – foundation/basic, specialized, and transversal skills – which are considered important for the  development of well-rounded learners and are related to attitude dynamics and competencies accordingly. This also initiates considerable transformations of curricula to provide learners opportunities for critical and innovative thinking, development of interpersonal and organizational skills, intra-personal skills (e.g. self-discipline, enthusiasm, perseverance, self-motivation, etc.), global citizenship (e.g. tolerance, openness, respect for diversity, intercultural understanding, etc.), media and information literacy such as the ability to locate and access information, as well as to analyse and evaluate media content in addition or even instead of text-books and curricula. A conceptual model of the digital competence that transforms tertiary curricula therefore includes: a) instrumental skills and knowledge  – operational and medium- related  – important knowledge and understanding of the  digital devices, their possibilities and skills of their usage in general and in educational settings in particular; b) advanced knowledge and skills of digital tools, media application and usage outside the  educational settings, strategic personal objectives in communication and collaboration, information management, further learning and problem-solving, meaningful participation, etc., in other words  – usage of the  digital tools in various situations where personalized values, critical thinking and creativity are challenged and added, and therefore demonstrate and further develop student and educator attitudes in communication, collaboration or cooperation; c) attitudes as a  component of an educator and student digital competence when operating with the digital tools demonstrate and further develop their quality of mind– creative, critical, autonomous, responsible, also demonstrate an attitude holder’s social position, for instance, tolerance, intercultural relations, reciprocity etc.; responsible attitude should be among the  didactic principles of tertiary education. 21st Century learning is closely related to digital technology and, accordingly, to the  learner’s and educators’ digital competence. If properly designed and used technologies may enable student engagement in multisensory learning, successful performance, learning motivation and positive attitude. Students can interact with virtual objects at their own pace and make subjective sense of the  perceived objective reality. Educators’ choice of when and how to use technologies can be tailored to 88 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 learners’ characteristics and needs, therefore easily capturing their attention (Pantelidis, 2009). The virtual world becomes an excellent opportunity for educators to implement a  learner-centered pedagogical approach where students learn by doing, which otherwise would be limited. Furthermore, another way to enhance students’ fine visual-spatial skills is the possibility of modifying parameters that often cannot be changed in a  real system (Potkonjak, et  al. 2016). These, and also other useful qualities, are encountered if educators and students hold a  positive or responsible attitude to progressive changes. These conclusions and statements (among many others) of researchers have been applied in education as creative tools for enhancing traditional curricula and learning techniques to change the  role of the  learner by becoming a  transformer of his knowledge rather than just a  receiver of information (Sanabria & Arámburo-Lizárraga, 2016), as well as a transformer of the ways of tertiary teaching-learning can enable changing roles among educators and students or teachers and learners. Effective and successful use of technologies coupled with the  qualities of the  21st Century learning, attitude, and learning style personalize the  virtual learning environments (Jena, 2016). These statements justify a  tertiary didactic principle of learning in educator – student teams. Curricula transformations are also a  result of innovations encountered by educators and students and triggered by their attitudes. These further transform attitudes and lead to an appropriate environment for digital learning – virtual, face-to-face or mixed curriculum. Some of the advantages of virtual curriculum over the  physical one include flexibility involving different components that can be easily created allowing damage and multiple access by students using the same virtual equipment at the same time. The virtual reality, for instance, aided by the 5G network (the fifth- generation cellular network technology that provides broadband access) is considered to be able of providing an even more effective way of teaching by ensuring access to a  new generation of technology that improves the  efficiency of teaching infrastructure (Orlosky, et al., 2017); the  3D virtual environments can facilitate students’ constructivist learning by providing flexible and unique learner-centered learning. Practitioners can also observe differences in educator and student attitude demonstrations like readiness, desire and willingness to transform the educational process or curriculum accordingly. In addition to these explorations, the educational process must address also such complicated phenomena as individual features of personality and self-image, cognitive ability and peculiarities of perception, experience and understanding – all these and other factors influence attitude to technologies that affect educator, as well as student, learning and competence development. The  researchers of the  above 89Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... mentioned project consider relevant for tertiary education the principle of role exchange among educators and students to make better use of their priorities, especially the students’ attitude and competence in the usage of digital technologies. The term principles is a  didactic category that introduces the  basic theoretical statements and guidelines of creating and conducting an educator assisted tertiary process/curriculum. These become especially helpful to maintain the effectivity of a deliberately organized educational process in its intensive transformation. Therefore didactic principles accentuate learners’ consciousness and activity in quality perception and competence acquisition, accessibility of education to meet students’ needs and personalized educator assistance, facilitating student autonomous digital learning to make it transformative, etc. (more on didactic principles in the context of the technology-enhnced learning, Žogla, 2019). Principles of tertiary curriculum follow the  logic of teaching-learning, as well as the logic of attitude development: a) educators assist students’ learning and saving time, successfully cover the  program and their becoming self-directed learners by targeted usage of digital technologies; b) multiple changes which are introduced by digital technologies invite educators to address their attitude to the  changed mission, using the  new possibilities and becoming digital learners themselves  – individuals do not have an attitude until they first encounter the attitude object or information about it and respond evaluatively (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998). Evaluation of educators’ and students’ attitudes towards digital technologies might prompt some ideas of transforming tertiary curricula towards more effective usage of e-environment by defining some didactic principles. Methodology The present paper uses the  empirical data to trace if there are any significant differences in educators’ and tertiary students’ attitude to digital technologies (Gokhale et  al., 2013; Hofstede et  al., 2011; Sharma, 2009) and digital competence development, that might interfere with the  transforming nature of technologies and therefore improvement of students’ digital learning. The investigation used a questionnaire as a tool of data collection (Gokhale et  al., 2013). The  survey has been posted on the  project website and tertiary students and educators of Latvia were addressed to give their views. The  questionnaire addresses five positions which demonstrate educators’ attitude to the digital technologies: 90 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 - educators’ and students’ interest in learning about IT, - recognition of the practical value of IT, - observations of the possible negative impact of IT, - gender equity or in-equity in using technologies, - recognition of the  positive impact of technologies on work and human life. The research base is made up of 260 respondents: 205 students and 55 educators of Latvian higher education institutions, including 44 men and 213 women, 3 respondents did not indicate their gender. Evaluating the  offered assertions and coding of the  factors and their characterizing statements were based on the  interpretation of the  findings by using the  Likert scale – the  procedure which is proposed by the  questionnaire methodology. As well, the  Mann – Whitney test and Kruskal – Wallis test, were used for quantitative data processing in SPSS 25.0 to identify a  statistical significance depending on the  profile of the  respondents. At the  starting stage of the  data processing, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for internal consistency was calculated; the  obtained result (α = .857) indicates good internal consistency. Findings Statistically significant differences (p <.05) in the  self-assessments (Table 1) depending on the  position of the  respondents (student or educators), were found in the  evaluations of two factors: Negative Impact of IT and Positive Effect of IT on Work-Life. In other factors, no significant differences related to the respondents’ position were observed. The average scores indicate that both groups of respondents (students and educators) have an interest in IT; respondents are aware of the  role of technologies in modern life and believe that gender equality is also provided and is not violated by their use. Table 1. Respondents’ assessment of attitudes towards IT factors Factors Mean Statistical significance (p)Students Educators Interest in Learning about IT 3,20 3,28 .227 Practical value of IT 3,73 3,77 .335 Negative Impact of IT 3,24 2,94 .000 Gender Equality of IT 4,02 3,99 .381 Positive Effect of IT on Work Life 3,46 3,31 .046 91Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... The analysis of statistically significant differences identifies that students more often (Mean Rank 529.63) than educators (Mean Rank 486.46) emphasize the  Positive Effect of IT on Work-Life, as evidenced by the  group’s average rating factor. The  analysis of the  characterizing statements of the factor and statistically significant differences according to the position of the respondents (Table 2) are revealed only when assessing the statement In general, IT will create more jobs than it eliminates: students evaluate this claim higher (Mean Rank 137.07) than the educators (Mean Rank 106, 02). Analysis of the  average values shows that educators, in general, disagree with this statement; they are aware that the  lack of digital competence will reduce successful career opportunities. Significant differences are found in assessing the negative and positive impact of IT on working life: in both cases, doctoral students give a higher evaluation. Table 2. Assessment of the qualifying statements of the factor Positive Effect of IT on Work Life Statements Mean Statistical significance (p)Students Educators In general, IT will create more jobs than elimi- nates 3,10 2,71 .004 Because of IT work will become more appealing 3,60 4,49 .199 Family-friendly environments are more available in IT occupations than others 3,09 3,04 .613 Because of IT, there will be more opportunities for the next generation 4,03 4,02 .794 Students responses argue that statistically significant differences (p  =  .008) are found in the  evaluations of With IT work will become more appealing, depending on the  field of science in which they are studying: medical and healthcare students are more likely to emphasize the attractiveness of IT use in their workplaces (Mean Rank 114, 58), while this view is seldom found with the  students of agricultural and forestry sciences (Mean Rank 2.00), as well as with the students of humanities and arts (Mean Rank 79.66). Evaluations of Positive Effect of IT on Work-Life confirm that respondents motivate their recognition of the  impact of IT on the  work environment by improving their digital competence; also they consider that students’ motivation might improve their activities in the chosen field of science and work. The analysis of the  Negative Impact of the  IT factor shows that the students’ rating is higher (Mean Rank 538.62) than the assessment of 92 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  educators’ (Mean Rank 452.98), as evidenced by the  group’s average rating factor. Statistically significant differences were found in three-factor statements (Table 3). In all cases, the  students’ Mean Rank is higher if compared to that of the educators. Table 3. Assessment of the qualifying statements of the Factor Negative Impact of IT Statements Mean Statistical signifi- cance (p) Mean Rank Students Educators Students Educators IT makes our way of life change too fast 3,93 3,93 .958 130,39 130,93 Advancements in IT will eventually destroy the earth 2,83 2,45 .021 135,85 110,55 People would do better by living simpler life without so much IT 3,04 2,65 .010 136,50 108,13 IT applications create an artificial and inhuman way of living 3,18 2,71 .001 137,91 102,89 The findings show that students are more concerned about the increasing impact of IT. Perhaps this can be explained by the fact that educators use IT more in their professional field; if compared to students they are less affected by the digital technologies in their everyday lives. In their turn, students grew up in a  digitized environment; their social contacts more often are virtual if compared to those of the educators. These assumptions need further detailed studies. This implies that although IT is increasingly coming into all spheres of human life, including education and, for example, many of the studies highlight the benefits of learning by using digital tools (Sun, 2018; Weng et  al., 2013), the  direct student-educator connectivity is still considered important, it supports the  achievement of its own goals, promotes social welfare and socialization in a particular environment (Arpino, & de Valk, 2018; Siedlecki et al. 2014). Learning by using the platforms offered by IT is just one way of facilitating modern individualization and differentiation according to the  educational needs of each student, which should not become the  main or even the  only way. Student responses show that although they have a strong interest in IT, they crave for natural, human relationships that should not disappear from the learning environment. The analysis also found statistically significant gender differences in the assessments (p = .002). Women more often (Mean Rank 135.18) agree 93Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... with the  statement Advancements in IT will eventually destroy the  earth than men (Mean Rank 99.07). There are also significant differences in student responses (p =  .019), depending on the field of study, statement IT makes our way of life change too fast evaluations: more worried about medical and health (Mean Rank 113, 97) and natural science (Mean Rank 96, 80) students, less often in the  field of agriculture and forestry (Mean Rank 1.50) and in the  field of humanities and arts (Mean Rank 85, 54). The  educators demonstrate statistically significant differences in the  assessment It makes our way of life change too fast (p =  .012): this aspect is more often of concern in the areas of science (Mean Rank 48, 50), seldom among the  representatives of the  agricultural and forest sciences (Mean Rank 1, 50). The researchers’ attention has been attracted by the evaluation related to the  respondents’ motivation, a  need and the  importance for non-stop improvement of their digital competence (Table 4). Table 4. Respondents’ interest in the development of their digital competence Statements Mean Agree (%) Significance of differences (p) according to gender position It is important for me in my daily life to know about IT 3,82 68,1 .079 .260 IT courses make significant contribution to one’s education 3,91 74,3 .632 .060 I enjoy learning about new IT discoveries 3,57 55,0 .031 .447 I am interested in new applications of IT for im- proving our lives 3,43 52,7 .027 .941 I like to read about IT-related topics 3,07 34,6 .000 .514 I have looked for information about IT advances on the Internet 3,02 39,2 .000 .031 The findings show that most respondents are aware of the  need for digital competence and its continuous improvement. Men do it more independently – they are more likely than women to be interested in new applications, searching and reading information. Statistically significant differences were found in the attitudes towards IT courses as a contribution to self-education, depending on the  field of science. In student responses (p = .035) the effectiveness of courses is more often recognized by these in engineering (Mean Rank 128, 25) and sciences (Mean Rank 124, 70), 94 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 less often by medical and health care students (Mean Rank 95, 26) and by agriculture and forestry students (Mean Rank 1. 50). The educators’ evaluations demonstrate statistically significant differences (p  =  .019) for this statement: the  highest rating is given by the engineering educators (Mean Rank 42. 90), the lowest – by agriculture and forestry (Mean Rank 1. 00), also of humanities and arts (Mean Rank 15, 67). The  results suggest that the  level of digital competence differs across the fields of sciences; this peculiarity should be respected in curricula building. Daily activities in a  particular area require not only a  different level of competence but also influence the motivation for the development of digital competence. Indirect information on positive motivation can be obtained from positive answers, like this: It is important for me to know about IT, IT makes work more attractive, IT courses are an important contribution to self-education, IT for future generations will have more opportunities, I am interested in the latest IT applications that could improve our lives. Statistically significant differences (p = .031), depending on the position of the respondents, indicate that educators (Mean Rank 149, 12) are more likely to look for information about IT development on the  Internet than students (Mean Rank 125,50). This makes it possible to conclude that teachers who usually are older than students would need more support in acquiring new IT possibilities. Today’s students are safer with IT, they learn a lot from learning by doing, experiential learning, through reflecting, and also from each other. Analysis of the  data obtained in the  Latvian cultural environment demonstrates differences in attitude towards IT; these were identified as being dependent on the profile and gender of respondents, also on positions and fields of sciences. Digital competence is perceived and understood by the respondents as a complex combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes, abilities, strategies; its complicated essence as well as assumption of the importance of IT and digital media for solving study, practice, research problems should be treated as a  possibility of involving educators and students in effective communication, participation and cooperation to create and share new knowledge, deep understanding, acquiring new elaborate skills (Ferrari, 2012). Additional research is needed to specify the level of digital competence for different groups of respondents (for instance, gender, profile, education, cultural context, etc.). This would allow for the  identification of the  educational needs of students and educators for the  development of their digital competence consciously accept and appropriately meet the transformative impact of digital technologies. 95Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... Discussion The commonalities and difference between student and educator attitude development towards the digital technologies in education should be treated according to their positions in this process. The educators’ job includes their particular responsibility, therefore their attitude to innovations and quality process must become a matter for their targeted self-education. Students’ current values and needs obtain their specificity because of a large variety and innovative character of digital devices and their usage; these objects of their attitudes are influenced by particular situations and cultural contexts. In the  digital age, students demonstrate a  stronger disposition towards technologies if compared to their educators. This sign of the  digital age demands the re-addressing of the didactic principles of formal educational settings (Žogla, 2019) and treat the differences in attitudes as priorities to be effectivelly used in education. When creating an appropriate curriculum at least three positions relating the  context of the  studies and setting didactic principles should be addressed to reduce strong normative constraints and transform an indoctrinating process into a  learner learning-centered one (principles could be described in details for each faculty, speciality etc.): a) knowledge considered by students as valuable usually causes positive emotions and is manifested in actions, therefore principles of a  tertiary educational process should make an appropriate shift because currently students hold wider knowledge and digital skills, therefore have larger potential for decision-making and curricula construction if compared to their real participation in these activities; b) values and needs are usually embedded in a  concrete reality by respecting students’ individual differences that are significant and therefore reflected in their attitudes; students’ digital competence should be considered their individual difference and a priority to be applied in a tertiary process; c) instead of using special stimuli for students’ learning, educators share their responsibilities with the students; roles of educators and students become interchangeable, threfore motivating. The contextuality of educators’ and students’ values are demonstrated and implemented when coupled with their sense of freedom and responsible attitude while being in their respective positions with interchangeable roles. Meanwhile, both of them hold equal positions regarding their on-going learning  – none of them can succeed by being passive in learning or by the normative restrictions of their positions. Transformation of educational curricula goes through the  joint venture of educator and student value exchange or problem-solving using educator and student experiences and 96 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 possibilities and breaking borders between students who, in normative settings prioritize students’ features related to those of growing/developing persons (less experienced) and educators, who now prioritize their non- stop learning instead of prioritizing their experience. Curricula of formal and informal/organized/assisted tertiary and further education do need clearly defined pedagogical approaches/ paradigms and educative goals which include a strong orientation towards responsible, critical, creative attitudes of future graduates to successfully meet the demands and priorities of their future jobs: graduates’ and later employees’ (also educators’) appropriate personal qualities, if coupled with attitude development, become a precondition of targeted competence acquisition. Educational principles become the  foundation for creating a  model of students’ and educators’ attitude development to complete curricula transition. These can be grouped around the  three levels of the digital competence, highlighting their essence, transformative character and demonstrating their step-by-step individual growth: (a) instrumental level of competence as an ability to complete one’s job; (b) mastery level of this competence characterized by educators and graduates responsible attitude and ability to improve the educational and job process in particular and varied situations; (c) educators’ (future specialists of any area) expert level or even excellence in creative innovations that promote the development of a tertiary institution or tertiary education in general. Therefore only reaching an instrumental level of competence in its traditional understanding for educators is not enough; this will stop a tertiary institution’s development in its particular role. The philosophical and psychological nature of attitudes prompts educators to prioritize attitudes and values to help students motivate their learning, and, when being learned, attitudes add to the learners’ success and contribute to the development of even stronger attitudes. The foundations of educators’ attitude to digital technologies and their usage should be re- addressed with the focus on its changes in accordance with the possibilities which digital technologies provide in their capacity as educational tools. Exploring and using the  transformational and transformative character of digital technologies that interfere with the  educators’ attitude leads to a higher general and unique qualities which a tertiary curriculum aims to nurture and which their further learning helps to keep balanced with new possibilities. Educators’ on-going investigations in cooperation with their students, coupled with the students’ preferences and possibilities, as well as targeted changes of pedagogical tools for successful assistance constitute the  core of a  tertiary process driven by and initiating further educators’ attitude 97Irēna Žogla, Svetlana Ušča, Mihails Kijaško. Focus on Curriculum Transformation ... change/development. Educator self-evaluation of their attitudes should be considered a  part of their job to maintain high quality functioning; their targeted attitude development should be coupled with innovations to release synergy when educators and students mutually empower one another’s development. References Ala-Mutka, K. (2011). Mapping Digital Competence: Towards a Conceptual Understanding. European Commission. Joint Research Centre. Institute for Prospective Technological Studies. ftp://jrc.es/pub/EURdoc/JRC67075_TN.pdf. Allport, G. W. (1935). Attitudes. In: C. Murchison (Ed.). 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Symposium Books. http://www.symposium-books.co.uk/. 100 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED LEARNING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNING MOTIVATION Santa Dreimane University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Technologies are an indispensable part of the  21st century; they shape people’s lives, and it is getting more difficult to get and hold the  attention of people, especially the  younger generation, because of the  ever-growing stream of information and information channels and platforms. In order to engage and motivate the  learning of the  younger generation, teachers cannot ignore the role of technologies in young people’s lives. The aim of this research is to identify opportunities to develop learning motivation and its correlation with technology-enhanced learning, as well as to compile the  latest and most appropriate motivation theories in a  contemporary context. To do so, a  literature review was chosen as a research method to review articles obtained via the Scopus database, using the keyword ‘learning motivation’ to select the research units. For the systematic analysis of publications, the English language and open access availability were chosen as parameters to reduce the number of articles to review. To better understand the learning environment and the potential impact of technology-enhanced learning on learning motivation, a survey was carried out on secondary school students (10th to 12th grade) in Riga, Latvia. Keywords: motivation theory, learning motivation, technology-enhanced learning. Introduction Technologies are an indispensable part of the 21st century; they shape people’s perceptions, needs and interests. It is necessary to take into account the  fact that it is getting more difficult to get and hold the  attention of people, especially the  younger generation, because of the  ever-growing stream of information and information channels and platforms that has decreased the average attention span in the past few decades. In order to engage and motivate the learning of the younger generation, but not only the  youth, teachers and researchers need to search for new approaches and methods to apply in an educational process, and they also need to remember the  impact of technologies in daily life and use them in their favour. There are some new approaches like gamification, virtual https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.07 Santa Dreimane Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... 101Santa Dreimane. Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... reality, augmented reality, simulations and other technology-enhanced learning opportunities that show a positive impact on learning motivation and engagement development. The aim of this research is to compile the  latest and most appropriate motivation theories in a contemporary context and to identify the correlation between learning motivation and technology-enhanced learning in schools. Methodology To compile the  latest and most appropriate motivation theories in a contemporary context, a literature review was chosen as a research method to review articles obtained via the Scopus database, published from 2014 to May 2019. The keyword ‘learning motivation’ was used to select the research units. For the systematic analysis of publications, the English language and open access availability were chosen as parameters to reduce the number of articles to review. In total, 47 articles were selected for analysis. To better understand the  learning environment and the  potential impact of technology-enhanced learning on learning motivation, a  survey was carried out in two secondary schools in Latvia. 84 students replied to the  survey. Students were asked about themselves, their habits and their free time activities. With regard to school, they were asked for their favourite and least favourite subjects and their reasons for this. They were also asked about the methods and technologies used in lessons and about feedback from teachers. Results of the literature review As mentioned before, 47 articles were selected for review using a systematic analysis of publications. Of these articles, only 33 applied some of the motivation theories to the research carried out. 14 research articles, although researching learning motivation, had no theoretical background of motivation theories. When researching learning motivation, the  literature review revealed that the  most commonly used motivation theories in these 33 articles were Self-Determination Theory by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (Foster-Heinzer et  al., 2016; Ho, 2017; Guo et  al., 2018; Huang & Hsu, 2019; etc.) and Self-Efficacy Theory by Albert Bandura (Chang et al., 2018; Chen, 2017; Lee, 2017; Schumacher & Ifenthaler, 2018; Song et al., 2018; etc.), and the third most common theory was about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Chen et al., 2018; Hmeljak Sangawa, 2018; Kim & Kim, 2016; Li & Shieh, 2016; Wijaya, 2019; etc.). Although Self-Determination Theory implies intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, there were researchers who did 102 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 not mention Ryan and Deci’s theory, which is why intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is separate. The next most often used theory was Flow Theory by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (Ebrahimzadeh & Alavi, 2016; Zhao et  al., 2018; Chang et  al., 2018; etc.). Other motivation theories detected in the articles were the four step model for promoting motivation in learning process: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS) Model of motivational design by John Keller (Lin et  al., 2018; Schumacher & Ifenthaler, 2018; Setiani et al., 2019; Zhang, 2017; etc.), Goal Theory (Lin et al., 2017; Liu & Chen, 2015; etc.) and others (see Figure 1). Self-Determination Theory posits that there are two types of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic. The authors of this theory, Ryan and Deci, state that although intrinsic motivation is an important type of motivation, most of the  activities people do are extrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Ryan and Deci identify three basic psychological needs in their theory: (1) the need for competence; (2) the need for connectedness; and (3) the need for autonomy, which nourishes self-determined motivation (Foster-Heinzer et al., 2016). Figure 1. Motivation theories applied in research articles In their article “Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: classic definitions and new directions”, Ryan and Deci develop a  taxonomy of human motivation, explaining amotivation, four levels of extrinsic motivation and finally intrinsic motivation Associated processes with amotivation are low perceived competence, non-relevance, non-intentionality. Extrinsic motivation first level is external regulation who’s associated processes are salience of extrinsic rewards and punishments. Second level of extrinsic motivation is introjection that is associated with ego involvement and 103Santa Dreimane. Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... approval from self or others. Next level is identification associated with self-endorsement of goal and conscious valuing of activity. Processes that are associated with fourth level of extrinsic motivation (integration) is hierarchical synthesis of goals and congruence. And of course mostly desired is intrinsic motivation that is based on interest, enjoyment and inherent satisfaction of a person (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 61). Self-Efficacy Theory by Bandura refers to our overall belief that a person can successfully achieve a particular result. Students with high self-efficacy can participate in learning activities more quickly (Chang et  al., 2018). With regard to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the  former means that the  individual’s motivational stimuli are coming from within, while extrinsic motivation means that the  individual’s motivational stimuli are coming from the outside as rewards, punishment or another outside source. Flow Theory by Csikszentmihalyi is fully concentrated on and engaged in the immediate activity; as a result, anything else is insignificant. It is in a state of loss of self-consciousness and disregards the passage of time (as cited in Chang et al., 2018). This theory states that ‘flow’ is achieved when the skills and the challenge are in the right balance. When talking about learning motivation, only 20 of the  47 articles include technology-enhanced learning, that is, 45% (see Figure 2). Of those 20 articles, e-learning was applied in seven articles, digital games in five articles, and three studies were about augmented reality. Virtual reality was also mentioned, as well as 3D, gamification and apps. Figure 2. Technology-enhanced learning: approaches used and described in research articles From the theories applied, Self-Determination Theory was extracted as the  basic theory on which to construct a  questionnaire for pupils using a taxonomy of human motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Self-Efficacy Theory and eight characteristics of Flow Theory were also used. All these theories were applied to determine pupils’ level of motivation. 104 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Results of the survey One of the  aims of this research was to investigate the  learning environment in two secondary schools in Latvia and the potential impact of technology-enhanced learning on learning motivation. To do so, an online survey was carried out in two secondary schools in Latvia  – one in the capital, Riga, and the second was a rural school. Link to the online questionnaire was posted by teachers on the  portal “E-class”, that is accessible for teachers, pupils and their parents. Questions were divided into two section  – first five questions were about pupils themselves, their habits, free time activities and technologies that they use and own. Second part of questionnaire contained 13 questions about school, pupils favourite and least favourite subjects and their reasons for this. They also replied to questions about the  methods and technologies used in lessons and about feedback from teachers. During the research, the anonymity of the respondents was ensured and the requirements of research ethics were observed. 84 students replied to the online survey. Of the 84 students who participated in the study, 72.6% (n = 61) were female, and 27.4 % (n = 23) were male. Pupils were aged from 15 to 19 years old, and 11.9 % (n = 10) of them were the only child in their family. Figure 3. Free time activities of participants of the survey The questionnaire revealed that, in their free time, these young people most of all like to watch movies, TV series or videos (n = 64), followed by sports activities (n = 42) and walks outside alone or with friends (n = 41). As Figure 4 shows, 32 of the respondents like to chat with friends in their 105Santa Dreimane. Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... free time, but 21 of the pupils also like to be lazy. Figure 3 displays other answers given by pupils. Asked which of the  mentioned digital devices they own or share with their family members, all 84 respondents replied that they own a  smartphone for personal use and almost half of them (n=40) own a  laptop for personal use, while 15 own a desktop computer for personal use (see Figure 4). Figure 4. Technologies owned by the participants of the survey or shared with family members Favourite subject When pupils were asked about their favourite school subject, as Figure 5 shows, the most common answer was Maths (n = 13). Their next favourite subject was Psychology (n=10), followed by Sports (n =  8) and English (n = 8). Figure 5. Favourite school subjects 106 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Pupils were asked for the reasons why this is their favourite subject at school. Looking closer at Maths and the given answers to the question why? 37% (n  =  7) of pupils’ responses revealed that they find it exciting and interesting, and 37% (n = 7) of responses said that they see the subject as useful in the future. Also, 26% (n = 5) answered that they like the teacher. If we analyse the reason for all the given answers about all the favourite subjects mentioned by the  respondents (see Figure 6), the  most common answer was “I find it exciting and interesting” (n  =  66), followed by the  answers “I like the  teacher” (n  =  55) and “It will be useful in the future” (n = 44). Figure 6. Answers to the question “Why is X your favourite subject?” based on the taxonomy of human motivation by Ryan and Deci Analysing the  given answers from the  point of view of motivation theories, interest in the  subject indicates an intrinsic motivation. Its usefulness in the future indicates an extrinsic but internalised motivation. However, liking the teacher indicates a feeling of self-belonging. Asking the pupils to keep in mind the  subject that they mentioned as their favourite, they were asked to describe the lessons, and the questions were based on the  Flow Theory of Csikszentmihalyi (see Figure  7). 42  respondents answered that the  lesson always has a  clarity to its goals and 30 responded that goals are often clear. Feedback is given always (n = 41) or often (n = 25), and they often (n = 37) or always (n = 31) feel they have control over the  tasks they are doing. And importantly, they often (n = 50) or always (n = 25) have complete concentration on the task. Lessons are also exciting and dynamic in most cases. 107Santa Dreimane. Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... Figure 7. Description of the pupils’ favourite subject based on Flow Theory Least favourite subject When the pupils were asked about their least favourite subject at school, the most common answer was also Maths (n = 15) (see Figure 8), which makes this subject controversial and dual-natured; survey data shows a correlation with the personality of the  teacher. The next least favourite subjects were Chemistry (n = 13) and Physics (n = 12). Figure 8. Least favourite school subjects Looking closer at Maths as the  least favourite subject and the  reasons for this, the  most common answer was “I am not good at it” (n  =  6). Responses revealed that 22% (n = 4) do not find it interesting, and 22% (n = 4) of respondents said that they do not like the teacher. 17% (n = 3) of respondents said that the subject will not be useful in the future, while one pupil answered that his parents are putting pressure on him. If we analyse the  reasons for all the given answers about all the  least favourite subjects mentioned by the  respondents (see Figure 9), the most 108 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 common answer was “I am not good at it” (n  =  56), followed by the answers “It doesn’t interest me” (n = 45) and “I don’t like the teacher” (n = 32). For 19 respondents, the subject will not be useful in the future. Figure 9. Answers to the question “Why is X your least favourite subject?” based on the taxonomy of human motivation by Ryan and Deci Asking the pupils to keep in mind the  subject that they mentioned as their least favourite subject, they were asked to describe these lessons, and the  questions were also based on Flow Theory (see Figure 10). The  respondents answered that the  lessons are never (n  =  33) or rarely (n = 33) exciting or joyful and that they do not feel they have control over the tasks or a balance between the challenge and the skills that they have. Figure 10. Description of the pupils’ least favourite subject based on Flow Theory During the online survey, pupils were also asked about the technologies used in lessons (see Figure 11). A  projector is always (n  =  27) or often (n  =  51) used, and interactive board is also often (n  =  49) or always (n = 19) used, also whiteboard. As was revealed in the study, smartphones are also sometimes (n = 40) or often (n = 21) used in lessons. 109Santa Dreimane. Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... Figure 11. Frequency of use of technologies in lessons When asked about situations when pupils need to find additional information for homework or tasks during the  lessons, the most common source of information mentioned was online sources (see Figure 12), followed by friends, who are also, probably, looking for information online. When asked what teachers allow pupils to use smartphones for, the most popular answer from respondents was to find information needed for the lesson online and sometimes to perform tasks online. Figure 12. Additional sources of information The analysed data revealed that students often (n  =  69) or always (n  =  9) work by themselves in lessons and that they often (n  =  52) or always (n = 15) listen to the teacher. Group work or peer work is carried out rarely or sometimes. Games or quizzes on the  topic of the  lesson are never or rarely used as methods in lessons. Feedback is very important to get a deeper understanding on a subject and mistakes that are made, which is why respondents were asked to evaluate the  feedback given to them from their teachers (see Figure 13). The majority of respondents answered that they often (n = 42) or always (n = 13) get only the grade or often (n = 40) or always (n = 13) get only a pass or fail indicator. They only sometimes (n = 30) or rarely (n = 25) 110 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 get an explanation for their mistakes or get positive comments, and rarely (n = 31) or sometimes (n = 29) get a short comment on their mistakes. Figure 13. Feedback from teachers As the  study shows, for 68% of pupils, feedback is very important, because they want to know their mistakes so they can learn from them. 23% of respondents said that feedback is very important and they want to know why they received a particular grade. 9% of responses said that feedback from teachers would be desirable, but they can live without it. None of the respondents said that they do not need feedback from teachers. Conclusion Compiling motivation theories in a contemporary context with the help of a  literature review revealed that the  most commonly used motivation theories in research articles are Self-Determination Theory by Ryan and Deci, Self-Efficacy Theory by Bandura, Flow Theory by Csikszentmihalyi, the ARCS Model by Keller and Goal Theory. The survey revealed that all respondents that participated in the research own a smartphone, but they do not use computers, tablets or TVs as much, because smartphones include all the options that are needed – both social and entertainment functions. Schools can use this as an opportunity to use them as an instrument in lessons. Although all surveyed students own a  smartphone for personal use, it is not said that everyone has the  same technical support to use them in the classroom. The teacher should assess the situation to be sure that all children are provided with this technology and act accordingly to avoid unpleasant situations. One more important factor for learning motivation is the  teacher’s personality and performance in lessons. In the  learning environment, the  teacher is an agent who helps to develop important components of motivation, such as feedback, self-belonging, sense of worth, interest, 111Santa Dreimane. Technology-Enhanced Learning for the Development ... challenge etc., therefore, the  teacher plays an important role in the development of learning motivation. It is hard to tell from this research whether learning motivation has some correlation with technology, because the  study did not reveal what the technologies are used for in lessons. Further research with qualitative methods is needed. But it can be concluded that technology-enhanced learning gives a  student external motivation that can eventually lead to intrinsic motivation if the subject is interesting for them. According to the questionnaire carried out during this research, there are students with intrinsic motivation or motivation with an external stimulus, but there are still many students with low level of learning motivation. Education is not taking advantage of technologies fast enough – the rate of technology use in lessons is low. 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From growth mindset to grit in Chinese schools: The mediating roles of learning motivations. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(OCT). doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02007. 113Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE IMPORTANCE OF DIGITAL RESOURCES IN THE INSTRUCTION OF MODERN LATVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE1 Anna Vulāne University of Latvia, Latvia Elita Stikute University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The aim of the  article is to provide an insight into the  digital resources used in teaching Latvian language and literature, and to analyse the  results of supplementing the  syllabus with material from the digital dictionary “e-PUPA” in order to facilitate learners’ interest in the varieties of the Latvian language, and of an in-depth study of literature through the use of various digital resources aimed to develop learners’ digital literacy. The  research was conducted for three academic years (2017–2019) in Riga Centre Language School (Rīgas Centra humanitārā ģimnāzija), involving 98 learners (total) from Grade 10. In order to achieve the intended outcome, a range of exercises and assignments were prepared. Work with these assignments encouraged the  learners’ critical and creative thinking, as well as their linguistic, communicative and digital literacy. It also helped them to perceive language units in a  complex and functional way; strengthened the  inter-subject link; enhanced their skills of text composition, research and cooperation; and encouraged self- guided learning. Research results proved that the  material included in the  digital dictionary “e-PUPA” was useful in studying the  Latvian language and literature. It helps learners to appreciate the richness, diversity and beauty of the Latvian language. Usage of the “e-PUPA” dictionary allowed the  learners to deepen their knowledge in all sub-branches of linguistics and to expand their vocabulary. It also provided them with linguistically correct information about the  phonetic, derivative and semantic structure of words, their grammatical features, etymology, functional environment, collocations, onymic systems, cultural labels etc., as well as their application in the  regional dialects of Latvian, in Latgalian written language, and in foreign languages. Besides, the folklore material and excerpts from fiction and scientific works and publications, used to illustrate the  meaning of certain lexical units, as well as various culturally historical facts and works of artenhanced learners’ interest in the nations’ world view reflected in the language. Keywords: teaching/learning Latvian language and literature, digital resources, digital dictionary “e-PUPA”. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.08 Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... 114 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Introduction The rapid digitalisation of information has created new and previously unknown challenges in education. Both the  educational establishments and the  wider society have to accept the  fact that information and communication technologies play a  more and more significant role in everyday life; that new software and hardware is constantly being developed and the mobile devices are becoming more advanced. This allows people to digitally capture and share information in graphemic, audio or video format. Students at schools, universities etc. are not only able to participate in classroom activities in person, but also to record them, take photos of the relevant materials, organise group conferences, receive private lessons and consultations and submit assignments, at the  same time being in another part of the world. People tend to get accustomed to things that make their life easier. Therefore it is no surprise that the  millennials see the  internet and the  materials available online as their principal source of information. It is therefore important to provide the learners with digital study materials, reference materials and digitised literary works alongside traditional books, thereby ensuring that the digital space contains relevant and high- quality resources. Carefully prepared digital materials are of great help to schoolteachers and university lecturers, as learners find them easily accessible and convenient to use. The need to develop learners’ digital literacy is closely linked with the  emergence of the  information society which replaced the  industrial society around the  turn of the  centuries. Edvīns Karnītis notes that societal systems change only when the  accumulated knowledge becomes restricted by the  current model and when the  existing model of social relations prevents further growth; when the  knowledge level in the  old system is sufficiently high to allow the society to move to the next stage of development. It is exactly at that point when all the necessary prerequisites give rise to new work methodology and relations, and to a  new societal and political organisation (Karnītis 2004: 83). At the  beginning of this century, the  accumulated knowledge base in pedagogy, digitalisation theory and practice, linguistics and literary theory had reached such a level and quality that the transition from the classical education triangle model (see Picture 1) to the new multimedial model was not only logical but also necessary for the knowledge society to evolve. 115Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... Picture 1. Classical education triangle model Some characteristics of this model include the learners’ ability to actively engage in the  learning process; the  acquisition of skills and knowledge not only through materials provided by teachers and the  curriculum, but also through cooperation and discussions with classmates, as well as from various academic resources, including digital ones (see Picture 2).  Picture 2. Multimedial model Aim of the Study The aim of the  research was to understand the  functionality and effectiveness of the newest digital resources (dictionary “e-PUPA”, “Latvian Language Manual”, “Map of Linguistics”, educational tool “Olūteņš”, and “Latgalian Spelling Tool”) in the  instruction of Latvian language and literature. This article provides brief information about each of these digital resources and the key conclusions on their usability. The article also details the practical experience of using the digital dictionary “e-PUPA”. 116 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Materials and Methods This research is largely based on Action Theory (Joas, Beckert, 2001), as well as on the  findings of various researchers about the  application of digital study resources (Daniela, Rubene, Goba, 2018; Daniela, Kalniņa, Strods, 2017; Dudareva, 2018; Brinkley, Dessants, Flamm, 1999), WEB evaluation (Kapoun, 1998), and the  devepment of digital skills (Ferrari, 2013) in the study process. The study combined the descriptive method and content analysis, and was conducted by the help of experiments and questionnaires. Content analysis was used in order to: • select relevant working material after the  survey of 409 entries of the digital dictionary “e-PUPA”. The main objective of this analysis was to understand (a) the  specific features of lexemes in different dialects, and their role in developing the linguistic and socio-cultural competence of the learners, and (b) the functionality of using dialect maps for learning purposes, • analyse the  riddles and tales composed by the  learners themselves, thus testing their perception of dialectal words and their functional characteristics. Each academic year, 30 entries of the dictionary “e-PUPA” were chosen for the experiment and offered to the  learners for analysis. Each of them then had to choose one entry and to fulfill the assigned tasks (see below). Every month, the work was organised in the following stages: • assignment of tasks and classroom discussions, • getting acquainted with the structure of the dictionary, • analysis of Latvian folktales and riddles, • independent research work (selecting and exploring a  dictionary entry, analysis of the map, processing and structuring the obtained linguistic information), • creative work (writing riddles and tales), • presentation of the  results in the  classroom; peer review and self- review with the help of a questionnaire. Finally, the  independent research work results were assessed and the questionnaire answers were analysed. On the whole, 98 learners were involved in the experiment over the course of three academic years. Digital Resources As mentioned previously, numerous tools have been created for implementation in the  syllabi of teaching Latvian as a  native or second language and the  Latvian literature, in accordance with the  standards agreed on in the  project “Skola2030” (School2030). Among these tools, the  most essential ones are are the  digital dictionary “e-PUPA”, “Latvian 117Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... Language Manual”, “Map of Linguistics”, as well as the  educational tool “Olūteņš” and the “Latgalian Spelling Tool”. In 2018, three of these resources  – “Map of Linguistics”, “Latvian Language Manual” and “Olūteņš”  – were completed, and in 2019 the development of a Latgalian spelling tool was began within the National Research Programme. • “Map of Linguistics” (http://www.lingvistiskakarte.lv) is a  digital database containing information on various events, individuals and places related to linguistics (see Picture 3). The  map is showing the  locations of the  relevant events, birthplaces of people etc. All parts of the  “Map of Linguistics” are interactive. Entries can be grouped according to persons, publications, events, places, or branches of linguistics. Besides that, the database also offers several tourism routes in Latvia with downloadable and printable overview maps. Picture 3. Map of Linguistics • “Latvian Language Manual” (http://valodasrokasgramata.lv/) is an encyclopaedic collection; it is a multifunctional and informative digital educational tool on Latvian linguistics. It covers the  main concepts of 26 branches and sub-branches of linguistics (containing over 1,500 entries or units). The material is compiled in two levels – basic and advanced. It contains theory, exercises, test questions, audio materials and linguistic maps (see Picture 4). 118 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Picture 4. Latvian Language Manual • The Latvian language has two written traditions – Standard Latvian and written Latgalian. For the purpose of teaching written Latgalian and  regional studies in Latgale, the  educational tool “Olūteņš” https://visc.gov.lv/vispizglitiba/saturs/dokumenti/ metmat/olutens_ 4kl_mac_lidz.pdf; htps://visc.gov.lv/vispizglitiba/saturs/dokumenti/ metmat/olutens_4kl_met_%20ieteikumi.pdf) for Grade 4 was elaborated (see Picture 5). It can also be successfully employed outside Latgale to learn more about this written tradition. The  Latgalian spelling tool which is currently under development, will further support this. • The work on compiling the  multifunctional digital dictionary “e-PUPA” (see Picture 6) was began in 2011 (http://epupa.valoda. lv/). The  dictionary contains word definitions, illustrations, dialect maps, as well as several articles by linguists, methodological instructions for teachers, and worksheets to be used in the  study process. 119Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... Picture 5. Educational tool “Olūteņš” Picture 6. Multifunctional digital dictionary “e-PUPA” The scope of the  entries is varied. There are full-scope entries (see Picture  7) consisting of 21  structural element covering approximately 40 pages (72,000 characters); medium-scope entries with up to 20 structural elements on approximately 20 pages (36,000 characters), and low-scope 120 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 entries with up to 20 structural elements on approximately 4 pages (7,200  characters). The  basic concept of the  dictionary is the  idea that every human is a biological, spiritual and social being. This is the reason for including copious and diverse material in the dictionary. Picture 7. The structure of an entry (stārķis ‘stork’) 121Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... The dictionary can be used as a supplement in teaching not only language and literature, but also other subjects. Apart from improving the learners’ proficiency of language and literature, it also encourages their integration skills and inquisitive interest. Furthermore, the dictionary material can also be used in universities for students of philology, translation studies and education sciences; in courses where Latvian is taught as second or foreign language; in other kinds of informal education, and also in academic research. In order to help the  learners to learn how to learn (Fadels, Bialika, Trilings, 2016), the  teachers need to cooperate, to create an appropriate learning environment, and to encourage the creative and critical thinking of the  learners (Fisher, 2005a; Fisher, 2005b; Stikute 2011), as well as their skills of cooperation and research. For this purpose, appropriate set of resources and linguo-didactic materials have to be developed.  Elaborating the new standards and programmes for teaching the Latvian language and literature in the  beginning of the  21st century, it became obvious that various easily accessible additional materials and resources would be necessary. The  project “Skola2030” (School2030) of 2019, also emphasized the  need to apply the  possibilities and advantages of information technology and digital solutions in the  education process, so that the  learners would use digital resources not only for entertainment, but also for developing certain skills. These resources can help to acquire new knowledge, to enhance creativity and critical thinking, and to arrive to innovative learning solutions in the  process (Daniela, Rubene, Goba, 2018, 3). A vast array of digitalised material is already available for studying Latvian literature and the  Latvian language. That includes websites containing scientific literature, study materials, texts and textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, power-point presentations, lectures and classroom notes. Digital study materials differ from the traditional materials in that they can be multi-modular, combining real, virtual and augmented study environment and thus they are a  powerful tool for transforming the  study process and enhancing the  learning environment (Kirkwood, Price, 2014). At the  same time, this situation also constitutes a  problem. Overwhelming majority of these materials exist by themselves, meaning that they have not been integrated into the  study curriculum and thus their application depends on the teacher’s choice. Express interviews with learners (circa 500) of various subjects show that most teachers do not make use of the  digital resources. The  reasons for this, as explained by the teachers themselves, usually are the excessive workload as well as lack of knowledge and inability to include these materials in the study process. Therefore, a research was conducted during 2017–2019 to assess the ways 122 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 of applying the newest digital resources in teaching work with the aim to improve the  educational content and the  communicative competence of learners of language and literature. Results Enhancement of the  educational content was conducted during 2017– 2019, every year offering the  following exercises to Grade 10 learners in their Latvian language classes: • introduction to and definition of various branches of linguistics with the help of the digital dictionary “e-PUPA”, • study of word meanings, monosemantic and polysemantic words and their semantic structure, • work with dialect maps and dialectal words, • study of phraseological units, expansion of vocabulary. For example, in order to learn that a  single concept can be expressed in different ways, the learners had to select and review a dialect map from the “Atlas of the Latvian Dialects” (Laumane 1999), which can be accessed via the  digital dictionary “e-PUPA”. As a  next step, they had to study the vocabulary of a particular sub-dialect. In the process the learners: • obtained a basic theoretical notion of a dialect and a sub-dialect by reading relevant research and listening to the  materials provided by the  teacher. Furthermore, they gained more detailed knowledge about the differences of Latvian dialects and sub-dialects, as well as an insight into the  historical events, geographic environment and other factors that have influenced them; • learned to interpret dialect maps and to understand map legends, as well as to identify various Latvian sub-dialects and to understand their vocabulary. Having completed the  review of a  map, the  learners had to choose a medium for presenting and visualising the acquired information (e.g. by drawing a map, a table, or a schematic diagram; see Picture 8). 123Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... Vārda stārķis izpēte Lībiskais dialekts Vidus dialekts Augšzemnieku dialekts Aists Bērzpils Bacans, Bocjans Ezernieki, Malta, Rundēni, Asūne, Istra Bačans Kaunata Bočaks Viļaka Gandr/ is, -s Vaiņode, Nīgrande, Aizvīķi, Nīkrāce, Kaltēti Kaļests Šķilbēni Kaļusts Viļaka Kļikuns Viļaka Poļaks Kaunata Stārgs Sunākste Starka Katvari, Lāde, Vainiži Plātere, Ķeipene, Dauguļi, Suntaži, Svitene Meņģele, Vestiena, Prauliena, Sarkaņi, Stārka Bīriņi, Limbaži Lēdurga, Mujāni Pļaviņas, Šāviena, Starks Svētciems, Rozēni, Vitrupe, Dzirciems Birzgale, Dole, Ozolnieki, Garoza, Liece Balvi, Mērdzene, Bērzgale, Viesīte, Zalve Stārks Engure, Usma Tērvete, Auri, Līvbērze, Sātiņi, Milzkalne Misa Sunākste, Tirza Starķis Dundaga, Nogale, Lauciene, Ainaži, Idus Jaunpils, Lestene, Tome, Krape, Skrīveri, Ādaži Kaplava, Saliena, Makašēni, Meirāni Storķis Stende, Laidze, Užava, Mērsrags, Upesgrīva Sventelis Cīrava, Valtaiķi Svētainis Rūjiena Pampāļi, Ruba, Kursīši, Svēteklis Gatarta Svētelis Zlēkas, Strazde, Zentene, Lībagi, Kuldīga, Padure Dzērbene, Veselava, Cēsis, Drabeši, Grobiņa Dignāja, Līvāni, Saikava, Ļaudoņa, Mētriena Svētēlis Bārta, Nīca, Dunika, Svētenis Bilska 124 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Vārda stārķis izpēte Lībiskais dialekts Vidus dialekts Augšzemnieku dialekts Svētnesis Ceraukste Svētputns Piltene, Ugāle, Padure, Ziras, Jūrkalne Turlava, Raņķi, Rudbārži, Kurmāle Svētulis Zlēkas, Valgale, Zentene Remte, Bērze, Zaļenieki Aizkraukle, Krustpils Štargs Sauka, Rite, Elkšņi Štarka Barkava, Vīpe, Stirniene, Atašiene Štarks Āknīste, Bebrene, Nīcgale Štarķis Sala Tāks Sīpele Tarks Pāle Zālīte, Rembate, Lielvārde, Baldone Tārks Lēdmane Žubure Barkava, Viļāni Žugare Atašiene Žugure Rudzēti, Preiļi, Gaigalava, Tilža, Lubāna Žūrējs Šķilbēni Picture 8. Examples of learners’ work Finally, the  learners had to fulfill a  creative task: to write three interesting, witty and challenging riddles about the researched words. They also had to invent a tale of origin of a particular dialectal word. Assessment of the learners’ work led to the following results and conclusions: The analysis of dialect maps Interpretation of dialectal words (%) Genre (%) 98 works % riddles (130 works) tales of origin (98 works) riddle tale of origin Excellent 72 17 29 81 78 Well 25 74 55 13 19 Average 3 8 16 5 3 Not done 0 1 0 1 0 In order to find out the  learners’ opinion about the  usability and effectiveness of the newest digital resources in learning Latvian language and literature, a  questionnaire was compiled. It included the  following questions: 125Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... 1. Can you name 3 to 5 new interesting facts that you learned by researching a particular dialectal word? 2. What else did you learn from this experiment/research? 3. What did you understand when fulfilling the assignments? 4. What thoughts did this research provoke? 5. What difficulties did you encounter during the experiment/research? Summing up all the feedback of the experiment, it was concluded that the  use of digital resources helped to improve and train various skills, namely: • skills of researchand analysis, the  ability to structure information and to draw relevant conclusions, • critical thinking, i.e. the ability to rely on scientifically trustworthy sources, as well as to critically examine one’s own and the  others’ work, • written and verbal communication skills (including the composition of a formal message, as several pupils submitted their assignments to the teacher by e-mail via the e-classroom system, • proficiency of using various digital resources and media. Several participants of the experiment confessed to having difficulties with this, as they found it easier to work from paper copies. Several learners admitted that it was difficult to use digital maps. These instances showed that school learners are not yet familiar with this kind of research work. The learners later applied the  experience gained from the  above- described research in their literature classes as well  – for instance, when analysing the role of dialectal words in a poem or prose text. The dictionary was also used to discuss the  attitude of our ancestors towards various realia and the way their worldview is reflected in language and in folklore. Another important and significant outcome of this experiment was the fact that some learners became interested in developing dictionary entries of their own. For instance, one student elaborated an entry with the headword “Wedding” as the  result of her project which later won the 2nd place in a nation-wide competition of school research projects in 2017. By using “e-PUPA” and other digital resources, learners were able to develop self-guided learning skills, as they had to complete the assignments independently, including decisions on formatting and presenting their work. They also improved their responsibility and time management ability. The experimental study also helped to develop collaboration skills, as those learners who were absent from classes had to obtain information and advice from their peers as well, not only from their teacher. When inventing and composing their own riddles and legends, the learners not only improved their knowledge of folklore and literature, 126 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 but also developed their creative thinking. They agreed that they had fun when doing this task where they could apply their creativity. On the  whole, this educational project improved the  so-called inter- subject link (involving such subjects as geography, history of culture, and regional studies), as well as the  ability to relate the  acquired knowledge to real life. For example, several learners commented on certain dialectal features or vocabulary that they remembered having heard in their grandparents’ native region. Conclusions The research lead to the following conclusions: • the use of digital linguistic resources in the educational process depends on the teachers’ awareness about their existence, as well as their desire to diversify the content of the curriculum and to offer new materials to their learners, • the use of the  digital dictionary, map and manual helps to improve learners’ knowledge in all sub-branches of linguistics, to expand their vocabulary, and to obtaining linguistically correct information about the phonetic and semantic structure of words, their grammatical features, etymology, functional environment, collocations, onymic systems, • the educational tool “Olūteņš” can be used in schools not only in Latgale but also elsewhere in Latvia in order to get acquainted with the Latgalian written language and cultural values. In addition, the “Latgalian Spelling Tool” can help to improve text-building skills, • the resources “e-PUPA” and “Map of Linguistics” are useful not only for learning Latvian language and literature, but also in such subjects as foreign languages, history, cultural studies, geography etc., • all the  above-mentioned digital resources can be successfully used as methodological aid for teachers, and also as academically correct sources of information and tools for developing linguo-didactic skills, • the main advantage of digital resources is their availability at any time and place, and the possibility to obtain the necessary information quickly and easily. The  use of IT promotes the  differentiation and diversification of the study process through innovative means. 127Anna Vulāne, Elita Stikute. The Importance of Digital Resources in the Instruction ... References Brinkley, A., Dessants, B., Flamm, M. (s. a.). 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Retrieved from: https://www.skola2030.lv/ (in Latvian). Stikute, E. (2011). Latviešu literatūras didaktika [Didactics of Latvian Literature]. Rīga: RaKa. (in Latvian). Vanags, P. (2019). Latviešu valodniecības attīstība: informatīvi izglītojoša elektroniskā karte [Development of Latvian Linguistics: Informative Educational Digital Map]. Rīga: Latviešu valodas aģentūra. Retrieved from: http://www.lingvistiskakarte.lv (in Latvian). Vulāne, A., Dundure, V., Matisāne, V. (2017). Olūteņš. Latgalīšu rokstu volūda 4. klasei. Metodiskie ieteikumi [Olūteņš. Latgalian Written Language. Form 4. Methodological Recommendations.] Rīga: VISC. Retrieved from: https://visc.gov.lv/vispizglitiba/saturs/ dokumenti/metmat/olutens_4kl_met_%20ieteikumi.pdf (in Latvian). ABOUT THE AUTHORS Anna Vulāne, Dr. philol., is a  leading researcher at the Latvian Language Institute of the  University of Latvia, professor of the  University of Latvia, expert in linguistics at the Council of Sciences of the Republic of Latvia. Elita Stikute, Dr. paed., assotiated professor of the  University of Latvia, teacher of Latvian language and Literature at Riga Centre Language school. Research area – history of pedagogy, didactics of Literature, critical thinking approach in study and learning process. 129Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE USE OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES IN SWEDISH TEACHER EDUCATION: EXPERIENCES BY MIGRANT TEACHERS Annika Käck Stockholm University, Sweden ABSTRACT Migrant teachers who wish to complement their studies to become eligible to teach in Swedish schools are a growing number of teacher students in Swedish teacher education. Since Swedish society is highly digitised, it is of interest to investigate how migrant teachers, attending four Swedish teacher education programmes, view teaching and learning, and moreover, how they estimate and experience the  use of digital technologies. The  results are discussed in relation to Illeris’ redefined transformative learning theory. A  convergent mixed methods research design, with a  survey (N  =  228), focus groups (N  =  5), individual reflective texts s (N = 30), and individual interviews (N = 9), was applied. The participants had studied teacher education programmes in 57 countries/regions. The  results highlight that some of the learning, when digital technologies were used (concerning values and identity, self-directed learning, and communication), reached the core identity and personality layer, and required learning as change – transformative learning. Migrant teachers expressed that the transformative learning experience took up to a year to accommodate. Keywords: Teacher education; Migrant teachers; Digital technologies; Transformative learning. Background The digitalisation of Swedish society and education Two important movements in Swedish society are digitalisation and migration. This study will address migrant teachers who have come to a  digitised society where they attend Swedish teacher education. Their view of teaching and learning, as well as their experience with the use of digital technologies in Swedish teacher education, are of interest in relation to Illeris’ (2014c) redefined transformative learning. According to the  Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2018), Sweden is among the top ten countries when it comes to society’s digital transformation. Furthermore, the digital divide in Sweden is narrower than most other countries in the OECD, and the use of digital technologies by individuals is significant. According to Davidsson https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.09 Annika Käck The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... 130 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and Thoresson (2017), Swedish people use the  internet privately and in school extensively. According to the  governmental Swedish National Digital Strategy and reports connected to it (Ministry of Enterprise and Innovation, 2011; Digitalisation Commission, 2014), digital competence includes the ability to keep up with digital technologies to obtain and retain employment. In addition, The National Digitalisation Strategy for the School System (Digitalisation Commission, 2017), states that the  modernisation of Sweden starts in school, developing digital competence (having the knowledge and ability to find, analyse, critically reflect, create, and use digital technologies). Digital competence is also detailed in the  national curricula (The National Agency for Education. Lgy 11, 2017; Lgr 11, 2017; Lpfö 98, 2016). The digitalisation of Swedish teacher education The demands of an information society are a push factor for a digitised teacher education. Bautista and Ortega-Ruiz (2015) discuss the importance of teachers’ professional development in an era of globalisation, educating for the  21st century with self-directed, creative, and critical learners who are competent emotionally, socially, and technologically. Digital competence is discussed in Swedish higher education in the  ordinance, “Högskoleförordningen 2014:1096, Annex 2” [The Higher Education Ordinance 2014:1096, Appendix 2] (Ministry of Education and Research, 2014): A future teacher must show digital competence and use it critically in teaching and learning as well as consider the  role of the  digital environment in the pedagogical occupation. Migrant teachers are expected to meet these requirements when they work in the Swedish school system. However, teacher education in Sweden has been subject to criticism for not providing teachers-to-be with sufficient training in the pedagogical use of digital technologies, and the  municipalities in Sweden complain about newly educated teachers’ (Swedish teacher students in general) lack of digital competence. It is argued that teacher education must be in sync with society’s development (Digitalisation Commission, 2014, p.  166 and 206). Enochsson (2010) investigated how Swedish teacher students in general at twenty-one teacher education programmes were prepared for future teaching with digital technologies. The  integration of pedagogical digital use was missing, and the most common way to use technology was writing reports and communicating. In a  more recent study (Demoskop, 2016), 1346 Swedish teacher students (in general) were interviewed about digitalisation in teacher education. Almost 50% considered themselves insufficiently prepared, in their teacher education programmes, to be able to teach with digital technologies, even though 75% considered themselves highly digitally competent. There were distinct requests to 131Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... enhance digitalisation, with associations to virtual classrooms, web-based examinations and lectures, and digital technologies that boost student learning. Migrant teachers in Swedish teacher education In addition to the  personal challenges of migration, a  part of today’s global educational field, migrant teachers’ professional identity becomes a subject of reflection and transformation when they encounter the Swedish educational system and the use of digital technologies in a digitised society. In Sweden, there is a government-mandated programme called “Utländska Lärares Vidareutbildning” [Further Education for Foreign Teachers], which started in 2007. The  programme is still running in 2019 and offers additional training for people who have a foreign teaching degree and wish to become eligible to teach in Sweden. In this programme, an individual study plan for 1–2 years is designed, including educational science, as well as education about the  Swedish school’s organisation, values, laws, and knowledge about grading, among other things. During their education, migrant teachers receive help to identify competencies they already have, those they need to modify for their new teacher role, as well as methods that might not carry over into their new role. Lastly, migrant teachers have a  placement period, where they can put theoretical knowledge into practical use. Theoretical framework Transformative learning In order to understand migrant teachers’ experiences with the  use of digital technologies, the  concept of transformative learning was applied. Life today is a  time of constant change and transformation, which make learning a  lifelong process. According to Illeris (2014b, p. 40), transformative learning is defined like this: “The concept of transformative learning comprises all learning, which implies changes in the  identity of the learner.” Transformative learning, as a  concept, was launched by Mezirow (1978), while he was studying women’s liberation processes in courses, during which changes in their self-perceptions were seen. For Mezirow, transformative learning involved qualitative changes in the  learner’s perspectives of meaning (how a person understands him- or herself), mainly cognitive, or frames of reference (meaning perspectives). Most central in transformative learning is critical thinking. Critical thinking and change fall in line with Taylor’s argument (2012) that a necessity for intercultural 132 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 understanding is the ability to think critically about one’s own beliefs and then change. Mezirow’s definition has been criticised for being too narrow, which made Illeris (2014a; 2014b; 2014c) widen the  concept. According to Illeris (2017), there are two basic processes of learning: the  integration of external interaction and the  internal psychological elaboration. The latter involves the content (what is learned) and the learning incentive (motivation, emotion, volition). All learning is situated; specific situations are experienced and interpreted by the learner (Illeris, 2014b; 2017). There is a distinction between learning as: • addition (cumulative, a pattern already is established) • assimilative (new things are added to what is already known) • change (accommodative) There are different types of accommodation: the  ordinary — when someone understands something in a  new way by accepting what is different, and the transformative — when the learner changes his meaning, perspectives, or ways of behaviour. Transformative learning includes cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions. For Illeris (2014a; 2014b; 2014c; 2017), the  target area of transformative learning is the  identity, covering cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions. There are three layers in Illeris’ (2014c) model of identity. First, we have an inner core, the core identity, which is quite constant and specific for the  individual. Secondly, we have the personality layer, which is the main target for transformative learning. This layer changes with new experiences and consists of an individual’s values, understanding, behaviour, habits of communication, patterns of collaboration, et cetera. Lastly, we have the  preference layer, a  more surface-based layer that relates to additional learning as what a person prefers, routines, automatic reactions, and is not targeted for transformative learning. During life, the  identity is created, developed, and changed. In addition to the  three layers, Illeris (2014b) addresses the  person as a  whole, with part-identities known as attitudes (national-cultural identity and religious-political identity), and practice (work-, family- and every day/interest identity). Migrant teachers often find themselves in a  huge transition that relates to these part-identities: changing country, language, and sometimes, experiencing unfamiliar teaching and learning. Identifying competence development that meets migrant teachers’ needs becomes important. For Illeris (2014a), competence is more than qualification; it reinforces the learner’s capability to function in new situations, closely related to one’s identity and how one functions in society. Knowing that competence helps a  learner to function in a  new environment, there are some elements to integrate into migrant teachers’ 133Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... further development. According to Taylor (2009), there are some core elements that guide a  transformative practice: individual experience, critical reflection, dialogue/discussion, awareness of context, and authentic relationships. Altogether, transformative learning demands a  learner- centred approach. For Illeris (2014b; 2017), a  practice or problem- oriented teaching and learning is a  must. The  competence development requires a) engagement, b) practice/problem, and c) reflection. However, the transformation can be offensive, regressive, or defensive when it is too demanding, and the learner can feel uncertain about education. The result can be withdrawal or regression if the  learner lacks the  strength or qualifications to deal with change. Another consequence can be to resign and accept things (Illeris, 2014b; 2017). The aim of the study and research questions Both technology development and migration are part of the  global educational field. With these comes, diversity in the  use of digital technologies and pedagogy. In order to understand migrant teachers’ experiences of the use of digital technologies in Swedish teacher education, we have to investigate the  estimated use of technologies in their former teacher education in relation to the  Swedish one, as well as their view of teaching and learning. There is a  lack of studies examining migrant teachers’ experience with the use of digital technologies (in Swedish teacher education). This study aims to understand migrant teachers’ experience when digital technologies are used in Swedish teacher education, in relation to Illeris’ redefined transformative learning (Illeris, 2014b). Research questions: • Which estimated use of digital technologies did migrant teachers experience in teacher education programmes? • What view do migrant teachers have about teaching and learning? • What learning, in relation to Illeris’ redefined theory of transformative learning, was identified when digital technologies were used? Methods Research design A convergent mixed methods design was used (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected through a web survey, individual interviews, focus groups, and reflective texts written by the participants. The data results and analysis were mixed and converged to gain a more nuanced view of the respondents’ experiences. The purpose of a  converged mixed methods design is to use both qualitative and quantitative results, analyse them each separately and then mix them. 134 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Population The web survey targeted all actively enrolled migrant teacher students participating in a government-mandated programme: “Further Education for Foreign Teachers”. An overall view of the population can be seen in Appendix A. A call for participation in the qualitative data collection was included in the web survey and the email to all enrolled migrant teachers. The migrant teachers’ former teacher education was conducted in 57 countries/regions. Four Swedish universities participated in this study. Due to confidentiality, the  participating universities were named: University A, University B, University C, and University D. Migrant teachers are a  heterogeneous group. In Appendix B, their age, years of former teacher education at the university level and specialisations are displayed. Ethics The Swedish Research Council (Hermerén, 2017) states that the main concepts of ethical concern in research are professional secrecy, anonymising or de-identifying respondents, and confidentiality, which were considered in this study as follows. Information was given to the migrant teachers about the  study’s purpose, representation, and the  voluntary nature of participation. Furthermore, migrant teachers were informed that participation would not affect their grades and that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Data collection To provide material that complemented each other, a mix of four data collection methods  – a  web survey, individual interviews, focus group interviews, and participants’ reflective texts – were used. Contact was made to the  National Director for the  project and the  administration at each university, and information about the  present study was given. Through the  Universities’ administrations, the  respondents’ emails were sent to the author. Quantitative data The respondents received information about the web survey in several ways (via management systems, email, seminars, and lectures) and it was sent via an online system to the entire population of 465 migrant teachers, and of those, 228 (49%) answered. The  survey contained an information page and four sections: a) demography; b) teaching philosophy; c) ways of thinking and practising in Swedish education that could be experienced as unfamiliar; and d) digital competence. The  respondents could answer the web survey with any digital device, and they could stop whenever they 135Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... wanted and continue at any time. In this article, the focus is on section a, b and d of the survey. Qualitative data All data collections covered the  following themes: ways of thinking and practising, digital competence, and teaching philosophy. At the end of the survey, the migrant teachers had the opportunity to permit the author to contact them for an interview. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, including nine individual interviews and five focus group interviews with a total of 34 individuals. Both the focus group and the individual interviews were held at the  participants’ universities in rooms that were familiar to them, lasted between 40 to 70 minutes and were digitally audio recorded by the  interviewer. The migrant teachers were instructed that there were no right or wrong answers and that it was essential to reveal their own experiences. As an introduction to the  interviews, the  respondents were shown the  thematic areas that would be discussed during the  interviews. The  focus group method was chosen to capture experiences, enabling migrant teachers to share and compare with each other. This interaction reveals data not captured in individual interviews. On the  other hand, the  individual interviews provided more in-depth insights since the participants were able to express themselves without the  influence of others (Cousin, 2009). Additionally, reflective texts and the  open-ended answers from the web-survey were collected. Fifteen migrant teachers sent in 30 reflective texts, stemming from the course: “To be a teacher in Sweden” (22.5 credits). As a  course assignment at University A, migrant teachers were asked to reflect over teaching and learning in Sweden compared to their former teacher education and work. The  texts were voluntarily sent through an online system or sent to the author by email. Data analysis The survey contributed to background data about the migrant teachers, see Appendix A, and Appendix B. The other quantitative data from the web survey were analysed using SPSS version 24, and Excel 2013 showing numbers and percentages. In addition, a descriptive analysis was conducted. Each of the interviews was transcribed verbatim in Swedish. The qualitative data was transferred into MAXQDA version 12, and Pro analytics 2018, a  qualitative data analysis software, for further processing and content analysis. The  qualitative data were read several times to obtain an overview and understanding of the material. The segments were coded into categories and quotations were chosen based on their representativeness. The  mixed analysis quantified some of the  qualitative data. In addition, 136 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 it made the  quantitative data more transparent by displaying qualitative quotations connected to them. Results Parts in the results This study described migrant teachers estimated the  use of digital technologies in teacher education programmes and, in addition, their view of teaching and learning. Furthermore, migrant teachers’ experiences when digital technologies were used, were identified and discussed in relation to Illeris’ theory of redefined transformative learning. The  results were divided into three parts: (A) Estimated use of digital technologies; (B) View of teaching and learning and (C) Digital technologies, learning and identity. First, a non-response analysis will be presented. Non-response analysis The response rate of the  online survey was 49%, see Appendix A. The participants who answered the survey were 88% female and 12%, male. They covered the entire spectra of migrant teachers concerning age, subjects, and specialisation. Furthermore, all were active students with the possibility to respond to the survey, which makes the natural non-response (not being able to answer because of serious illness, travels) a non-issue. Other aspects could have an impact on the non-response: The fact that the survey was in Swedish, not the participants’ first language; it was a  lengthy survey and; there was a possible lack of interest in the subject of digital competence. It could also be that for some participants, the effort to use the devices and answer the  survey was daunting. Although the  response rate had a  risk of bias due to language difficulties and the  length of the  digital survey, the  convergent research design covered a broad spectrum of perspectives from migrant teaching students. (A) Estimated use of digital technologies To understand the  use of digital technologies in Swedish teacher education, it was of interest to investigate if it was used by teacher educators and placement supervisors at their former teacher education programmes as well. Migrant teachers estimated what percentage of their teacher educators and placement supervisors, in Sweden and their former countries, combined content, digital technologies and teaching strategies. The estimated use in Sweden was measured after at least one semester, up until the end of their further development studies. An overview can be seen in Figure. 137Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... Figure. Results of the use of digital technologies Note. This table shows how migrant teachers estimate the use of digital technologies in teacher education in Sweden and former teacher education, as well as the placement supervisors during their placement period in both countries. When looking at the 76–100th percentile, see Figure, the results show that the use of digital technology was estimated higher in Sweden, both in teacher education (n = 82) and among the placement supervisors (n = 50), in comparison with their former teacher education (n  =  13), as well as among their placement supervisors (n = 12). However, there were migrant teachers who thought that digital technologies were used more often in their former education. The result is not to be read that the use of digital technologies is more prevalent in Sweden. It was not possible to make this comparison since, to have accurate results, the study should be done in each country at the same time. However, the results give information regarding if migrant teachers, who attend Swedish teacher education programmes, were educated in digital technologies in their former countries. In the  mixed method analysis of using digital technologies in teacher education, three qualitative categories of use were found and counted, a)  more use in Swedish teacher education (n  =  172), b) the  same use in both countries (n = 56), and c) more use at former teacher education (n = 12), altogether N = 240 qualitatively coded segments. 138 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table. A mixed methods table that shows the number and quotations of the use of digital technologies in teacher education in relation to former teacher education Category N = 240 qualitative coded segments Quotation a) more use in Swedish teacher education (n = 172) ’The teaching is different [in Sweden], there are a lot of digital technologies in use that I never had as a teacher-student [former country]. The other thing is the way you participate as a teacher-student during the lessons; I was not used to this.’ b) the same use in both countries (n = 56) ’No, there is no difference.’ c) more use at former teacher education (n = 12) ’I believe that the spectrum of courses is broad [former country]. Parallel with courses in the subject is didactical courses how to teach, didactical knowledge and tools. Later on, you try them out in reality during the practice. You must show your theoretical knowledge in practice, adapting your lessons.” In category a) More use of digital technologies in Swedish teacher education (n  =  172 qualitative coded segments), migrant teachers were not only referring to the  amount of digital technology in use as being something unfamiliar but also how and why it was used in teaching and learning. The  accessibility and possibility to use digital technologies was lacking in the  former country due to money issues, war, or restrictions by the  government to use some of the  technologies, or that the  former education was conducted a  long time ago. Other reasons were lack of interest or incitement to use digital technology or that more traditional methods for teaching and learning were preferred. In category b) The same use (n = 56), migrant teachers found the use of digital technologies in Swedish teacher education familiar and the teaching and learning that comes with it. Digital technologies used for information, administration, and presentations were common in their former education as well. In category c) More use at the former teacher education (n = 12), migrant teachers expressed that digital technologies were used more often and were well-integrated in all subjects in their former teacher education. The  use of digital tools and apps (online collaborative learning, social media, smartboards, programs included in the subject books, programming, and working with different projects using e-learning) were taught and integrated in practice. Migrant teachers studied the subject content parallel 139Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... with courses in digital technologies. Moreover, they practised what was learned during their placement period. (B) View of teaching and learning A task and a  challenge for teacher education, when providing further development for migrant teachers, is the  diversity within the  views of teaching and learning. Teachers’ philosophies have bearing on which teaching approaches are chosen, hence how digital technologies are used and experienced in teacher education. Findings in this study show this diversity in teaching philosophy, the  view of the  role as a  teacher, the  students, how learning occurs and finally, the  relationship between education and society. The  web survey included 23 statements about teaching philosophy, answered by n = 213 to n = 219 migrant teachers. For more detailed findings, see Appendix C. A common discussion is whether teaching should be teacher- or student- centred. A  teacher-directed education was agreed with by n  =  116, but n  =  27 of migrant teachers disagreed. Altogether, most of the  migrant teachers saw themselves as mainly both a  subject expert (n  =  136) and mentor (n = 177), and moreover, preferred to work in a team (n = 142). However, there are migrant teachers that rejected a mentoring (n =  14) and an intermediary (n  =  47) teacher role and preferred to work alone (n  =  21). However, to have a  more caring and cherished teacher role was agreed with by n  =  140, while only n  =  18 disagreed. In Sweden, the emphasis is on student-centred teaching, both within teacher education and in schools. Findings connected to migrant teachers’ views of the role as a student show that a  majority view students as responsible and independent (n = 123), while n = 23 disagreed. Seeing students as passive and needing to be controlled so that learning can occur was more evenly distributed – n  =  60 migrant teachers agreed, n  =  55 neither agreed nor disagreed, and n = 98 disagreed. Despite this, the majority also viewed students as responsible and independent, and considered training students’ social skills (n = 176) and independence (n = 178) a task for the teacher. The statements about learning show a  diverse picture. The  statement that students learn the  most when schools emphasise hard work, respect and discipline were agreed with by n  =  95 migrant teachers, n  =  61 neither agreed nor disagreed, and n = 60 disagreed. In addition, a majority saw the  importance of student motivation related to learning (n  =  205) and creating an encouraging atmosphere which promotes the  students’ development (n = 206). How students learn was a divider. Social learning, the  idea that students learn most when they work together, was agreed with by a majority (n = 164). Autonomous, self-directed learning was not 140 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 appreciated by all, and even though n = 147 migrant teachers agreed that students should be active, decide what and how they shall learn something, n  =  16 disagreed with this idea. A  majority agreed with the  statement that teaching shall build on students’ earlier experiences (n  =  174), be aligned with the students’ understanding (n = 209), and adapt individually to each student (n = 169). However, there were still those who disagreed. The findings show that some migrant teachers disagreed to learning built on earlier experiences (n =  12), align with understandings (n =  3), and individually adapted (n = 17). Process or product focus on learning divided the  teachers. The  focus shall be on the  teaching process and not the  end product was agreed with by n = 133, however, n = 57 neither agreed nor disagreed, and n = 26 disagreed. In Sweden, both active autonomous and social learning is common. Furthermore, building on earlier experiences and understanding and emphasising the  process is considered important. Some of the  statements were directed towards the  role of education in society. In Sweden, this is important in ordinances and curricula. Most migrant teachers agreed with a close working relationship between school, education and society (n =  179), also that teaching should relate to life outside school (n = 190). Sweden is a digitalised society, and only n = 7 migrant teachers disagreed that information technology must be integrated into teaching. A  more diverse picture showed n  =  123 agreeing and n = 42 disagreeing with the statement: Education shall be the same in all schools and not vary between different teachers. (C) Digital technologies, learning and identity This study aims to understand migrant teachers’ learning when digital technologies are used in Swedish teacher education, in relation to Illeris’ redefined transformative learning (2014b). The  target area for transformative learning is the  identity (cognitive, emotional, and social). It is important to remember that migrant teachers are not a homogenous group; there is a  span between unfamiliar to familiar experiences, with learning that is individually situated and interpreted. In this second part, the  three layers of identity were used for categorising the  migrant teachers’ experiences: a) The  core identity; b) The  personality layer, and c) The  preference layer. Regressive transformative learning will also be discussed. The core identity Migrant teachers, having come to Sweden for many different reasons such as war, work, or relationships, are in a huge transition, changing cultures and language. “When I migrated to Sweden, I was in limbo for a  year. I did not know who I was; I got problems with my identity.” Expressing this 141Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... touches the core centre of the  identity, wherewith a person has the sense of being an individual. On their journey towards finding themselves as individuals and their role as teachers in Sweden, they expressed that this society has shared perspectives, certain values and principles that are taken for granted but can appear contradictory to those of their former country. It can be very different from having a work identity as a teacher in Sweden, seen as more of a  supervisor while coming from a  country where the  teacher is viewed as a  strong authoritative figure that people look up to. “I was like a mayor in my former country.” The analysis also presented that some migrant teachers used digital technologies to process and understand their identities in the  new Swedish context compared to their former country. Digital technologies and its influence on identity, gender issues, et cetera were considered unfamiliar and an eye-opener. The personality layer Expressions of unfamiliarity in the personality layer, related to values, behaviour, and how to collaborate, were found. As for the  core identity, some migrant teachers used digital technology as a tool to gain knowledge and compare concepts to understand the foundation of teaching and learning in Sweden in relation to themselves as teachers. “I searched the Internet to compare the concept of fundamental values within educational systems [in different countries].” However, it was not only the  technology that was unfamiliar; the challenge of shifting pedagogical perspectives was a big issue. “It was scary being so autonomous from the beginning.” For some migrant teachers, the  ordinary accommodation, understanding and accepting new ways, was not enough. Hence, a transformative accommodation, in which the  migrant teacher changes both the  meaning perspectives and ways of behaviour, was expressed. There was a  conflict between earlier strategies for learning and how one perceived oneself. It was problematic for me to conform… It took me about a year to get used to and use this way of learning [self-directed, autonomous]. I was very stressed out. You have the former system of doing things within you. Furthermore, within the  new learning context, new patterns of collaboration followed. Digital communication and socialisation, as part of their studies, were experienced as unfamiliar, especially in the teacher educator-migrant teacher relationship. “I never socialised with teachers online [former country].” According to migrant teachers, digital technologies can make contact better, the feeling that the teacher educator sees them  – for example, with giving answers and feedback more easily. There is a risk, though that the use of online technologies minimises the time with the  teacher educator. Online tools can decrease the gap, but only if the  teacher educator is present and engaged in the  online environment. 142 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 However, teaching about digital technologies and how they are used in social interaction [in Sweden] is lacking, even though it is something new. “Interesting insights for me were the learning connected to social aspects.” Digital technologies were mostly recognised by migrant teacher students as an aid in their studies. The  idea that they could experience help even when they were not on-site at the education programme, the accessibility to lectures, peer support, and writing and communicating with others was something important. “It [digital technologies] helped me to finish my studies.” Furthermore, using online technology was helpful due to the large variety in their private lives. “For me, as a  mother, digital technologies made it so much easier to study… I did not have to leave my children at home.” For some migrant teachers, learning to communicate online was more like learning as change, in both the  ordinary accommodation and transformative learning, as they were not used to being exposed to sharing their thoughts and texts in this way. In these cases, the  external and internal elaboration was more of a challenge. Thus, migrant teachers express a  lack of education in the use of digital technologies for teaching and learning. In teacher education [Sweden] we use digital technologies almost every lesson, presentations et cetera. We do not get it [how to use it in teaching and learning] from the teacher education though; it is mostly that you search for yourself. We got a  little tip about digital technologies in the didactics study, however. The preference layer The preference layer of the  identity relates to what an individual prefers, routines, etc., and learning as addition or assimilation is common. Here, migrant teachers convey usage of digital technologies for information and administration that do not demand deeper processing or identity change from the  user. “The teacher educators use learning management systems [or other online tools] a lot for the information and a place where we can find and send in papers.” Using digital technologies, for example, LMS, information websites, and email was not experienced as problematic, but rather the  opposite  – it made studying easier  – even though the  administrative digitalisation within Swedish teacher education and how information is distributed was experienced as unfamiliar. Information about how to use online tools, however, was sometimes insufficient. “It was a new system; if you can use it, then it is a  good thing. I had some problems, in the beginning, to find information or to guide myself within the system.” 143Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... Regressive transformative learning Not all of the  migrant teachers experienced the  use of digital technologies as something helpful and useful; some expressed negativity or scepticism regarding its use. This can happen when transformative learning goes against what a migrant teacher wants or considers important. “I think it is very bad to use of digital technologies.” Digital technology was considered negative for learning and a  waste of time. Furthermore, regressive transformative learning was evident when migrant teachers identified themselves as digitally illiterate, and at the  same time, lacked sufficient training from Swedish teacher education. Moreover, autonomous, student-centred teaching, was rejected by some migrant teachers. “What kind of learning is that [about social learning]?” It was stressful for migrant teachers when both digital technologies and the pedagogy were unfamiliar. Discussion In the global educational field, migrated teachers are becoming an asset to education in their new home countries. This study aimed to understand migrant teachers’ experiences when digital technologies are used in Swedish teacher education. To understand this, there was a  need to investigate if migrants were educated about using digital technologies in their former teacher education, moreover their view of teaching and learning. A mixed method was used, combining different collection methods, results and analysis. This enhanced the  validity and reliability since the  qualitative and quantitative results supported each other. Limitations of the  study connected to the web survey were present, such as the response frequency of 49%, the lengthiness of the web survey, and that it was in Swedish. Currently, migrant teachers come to Sweden, a highly digitised society (Davidsson & Thoresson, 2017; OECD, 2018), for further education. The  practice and attitudes within their work identity as professional teachers are in transformation. Earlier studies displayed that teaching students (Swedish in general) requested more education about how to teach with digital technologies (Enochsson, 2009; Demoskop, 2016) since being digitally competent is a growing demand in a digitalised society (Bautista & Ortega-Ruiz, 2015) and teachers want useable competencies. This is confirmed in the  present study as well, even though digital technologies are heavily used in Swedish teacher education. Migrant teachers are not a  homogenous group; the  analyses showed a  significant variation in the  learning experienced when digital technologies were used. The use in administration, information and communication was well met. However, the  connection within learning: the  why what, and how they learn in 144 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 a digital environment – the pedagogical use of digital technologies – was found to be lacking. Migrant teachers who were familiar with digital technologies in their former countries expressed the  pedagogical use as student-centred, social learning, describing a  genuine competence development that influenced how they taught and behaved like a teacher, reaching the personality layer of the  identity. This is supported in Taylor’s (2009), Illeris’ (2014b) and Mezirow’s (1978) description of transformative practice and was something these migrant teachers experienced in their former teacher education. Teaching and learning strategies used in Swedish teacher education, in general, are autonomous, student-active education, and social learning, among other methods, but not always when digital technologies are used. Migrant teachers who felt comfortable in the  Swedish educational context could just add to what they already knew since the  teaching and learning was already familiar as a work identity. Consequently, learning as addition or assimilation (Illeris, 2014b) was more common, often reaching the preference layer and sometimes the personality layer. Migrant teachers who expressed a  more extensive use of digital technologies in the  Swedish teacher education programme than in the former country meant both in the amount and how and why it is used. The methods were unfamiliar to them, suggesting learning as change, and new teaching and learning strategies took up to one year to learn and use, with or without digital technologies. The  learning process that facilitated self-directed learning and emphasised motivation was not familiar. This mirrored if digital technologies were important in their former society and education. Some called themselves digitally illiterate. Interestingly, some used digital technologies for identity processing, cognitive, emotional, and social transformation. They expressed that they met many new challenges which conflicted with their former identity and practice as teachers (both in teacher education and in schools). When competence development is planned with identity and transformative learning in mind, it targets the  personality layer, changing values, behaviour, and patterns of collaboration. However, when helping migrant teachers to personalise and individualise the  teaching and learning, ways of teaching and learning must be assimilated since it is not something all teachers agree to use. Closely related to learning as change is how competence is viewed, as a  prerequisite for qualification, or giving one the  capacity to meet the  unknown. The  latter is a  critical component for both transformative learning and the  use of digital technologies, which are each a  target for continuous development into the  unknown. Learning of a  transformative nature, cognitively, emotionally, and socially is vital if digital technologies 145Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... will be used in teaching and learning. It is important to make transparent which opportunities migrant teachers have to reflect over transformative challenges in their professional development using digital technologies. If proper learning does not occur, regression and resignation can be the outcome instead. Further studies concerning migrant teachers, transformative learning and identity, would make the integration process and how to design further development in education more transparent. Implications of the  analysis highlight that a more diversified further development of digital technologies connected to teaching and learning must be developed. Furthermore, digital technologies can be used in teacher education at a  deeper level, as an aid to identify and problematize the migrant teacher’s identity and role. Lastly, migrant teachers express that it takes a lot of time to adjust to a new teaching and learning environment. Conclusions Coming to a new society and experiencing new learning contexts can be a  considerable transition, demanding authentic competence development and transformative learning that targets the  personality layer. Migrant teachers have mixed backgrounds, a  diversity which concerns digital competence as well as their views about teaching and learning. It is beneficial to investigate the  current digital competence of the  individual migrant teacher with emphasis on what is required in the  situated educational context, in addition to understanding and analysing which teaching and learning methods suit the  current group  – always with the  migrant teachers’ view of teaching and learning in mind. Lastly, it is important to plan for transformative learning, giving migrant teachers the  opportunity to critically reflect over and interlink their teaching professions from the past, present, and future. This can be accomplished by using a  learner-oriented, problem-based approach with critical reflection in dialogue with others, including cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. This takes time and effort; however, it will enhance digital competence. Furthermore, it is essential to understand that migrant teacher are an asset to Swedish teacher education, with pedagogical competence from different parts of the  world. The  exchange and learning experience is beneficial for all. 146 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 References Bautista, A., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2015). Teacher professional development: International perspectives and approaches. Psychology, Society and Education, 7(3), 343–355. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. (2.ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. doi:978-1-4129-7517-9. Cousin, G. (2009). Researching learning in higher education: An introduction to contemporary methods and approaches. Routledge. Davidsson, P., & Thoresson, A. (2017). Svenskarna och internet 2017: Undersökning om svenskarnas internetvanor. [The Swedes and Internet 2017: An investigation about Swedes’ Internet habits.] IIS, Internetstiftelsen i Sverige. Retrieved from https://www. iis.se/docs/Svenskarna_och_internet_2017.pdf. Demoskop. (2016). Report. Lärarutbildning och digitalisering – en undersökning bland Sveriges lärarstudenter. 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Stockholm: Skolverket. National Agency for Education. Lgy 11. (2017). Läroplan för gymnasieskolan: Lgy 11. [Curriculum for the upper secondary school]. Stockholm: Skolverket. National Agency for Education. Lpfö 98. (2016). Läroplan för förskolan: Lpfö 98 [Curriculum for pree school]. Stockholm: Skolverket. OECD. (2018). OECD reviews of digital transformation: Going digital in Sweden. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264302259-en. Taylor, E. W. (2009). Fostering transformative learning. In J. Mezirow, Taylor, E.W. & Associates: Transformative learning in practice: insights from community, workplace, and higher education. San Francisco, Calif: Jossey-Bass. Taylor, E. W., & Cranton, P. (2012). Handbook of transformative learning: theory, research, and practice. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezp.sub.su.se. 148 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Appendix A. Summary of Data Collection Activities Data collection Former teacher education in: Survey N = 228 (out of 465) 49%: 12% male and 88% female University A: n = 180 of 380 (47%) University B: n = 18 of 30 (60%) University C: n = 9 of 15 (60%) University D: n = 21 of 40 (52.5%) Algeria, Argentina, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Central America, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Egypt, Ethiopia, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Iraq, Iran, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Kosovo, Kurdistan, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Mongolia, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Palestine, Philippines, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, South Africa, Syria, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, USA, Uzbekistan, Yugoslavia, Zambia Individual interviews N = 9: male n = 3 and female n = 6 University A: n = 2 University B: n = 4 University C: n = 1 University D: n = 2 Hungary, Latvia, Canada, Nicaragua, Palestine, Philippines, Russia, Serbia, South Africa Focus groups N = 5 groups; N = 25 teachers male n = 4 and female n = 21 University A: 3 groups University B: 1 group University C: 1 group Belarus, Bulgaria, China, Estonia, Hungary, India, Iraq, Iran, Latvia, Mongolia, Peru, Poland, Philippines, Russia, Ukraine Reflective texts (30 texts) N = 15 teachers male n = 3 and female n = 12 University A (all) Balkans, Bangladesh, China, Germany, Hungary, Iraq, Iran, Kurdistan, Latvia, Lebanon, Serbia, Ukraine In sum Continents: Asia n = 107 Europe (not Sweden) n = 95 South America n = 12 Africa n = 8 North America n = 3 Notes. Value N = Total number of respondents, value n = number of respondents in a case. 149Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... Appendix B. Background data of migrant teachers Migrant teachers Data collection Years of age Quantitative: ‣ 25–31 years, n = 36 ‣ 32–38 years, n = 80 ‣ 39–45 years, n = 56 ‣ more than 45 years, n = 50 Qualitative: the same span Years of former teacher education Quantitative: ‣ 2 years, n = 36 ‣ 3–4 years, n = 96 ‣ more than 5 years, n = 79 ‣ graduate students, n = 8 Qualitative: the same span Specialisations (The migrant teachers could tick more than one box for specialisation in the web-survey) Quantitative: ‣ Upper secondary school, n = 129 ‣ Secondary school, n = 110 ‣ Middle school, n = 79 ‣ Primary school, n = 51 ‣ Preschool, n = 18 ‣ Special education, n = 8 ‣ Recreation centre, n = 1 ‣ Other types of specializations, n = 25 Qualitative: the same, except recreation centre n = 0 Subject areas ‣ Quantitative data: social science, nature science, language, mathematics, art, music, special education, preschool, gymnastics and sports and health, recreation centres, country-specific ‣ Qualitative data: social science, nature science, special education, gymnastics, sports and health, language (English, French, Russian, some Mother’s tongue), literature, mathematics, art, music, computers and technology, psychology, country-specific 150 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Appendix C. Teaching philosophy – numbers and % from the web survey Questions in the survey N =  Strongly disagree/ Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree/ Strongly Agree 1. Students shall be active, decide what and how they shall learn something N = 219 n = 16 8% n = 56 26% n = 147 67% 2. Education shall be directed by the teacher N = 217 n = 27 12% n = 74 34% n = 116 54% 3. I see myself as an intermediary of facts and information N = 213 n = 47 22% n = 46 22% n = 120 56% 4. Students learn the most when schools emphasize hard work, respect and discipline N = 216 n = 60 28% n = 61 28% n = 95 44% 5. I am mainly a mentor who helps the students N = 218 n = 14 6% n = 27 12% n = 177 81% 6. Students are passive and must be controlled so that learning can occur N = 213 n = 98 46% n = 55 26% n = 60 28% 7. Teaching shall be adapted individually to each student N = 218 n = 17 8% n = 32 15% n = 169 78% 8. I am mainly a subject expert who shall give the students subject competence N = 216 n = 27 12% n = 53 25% n = 136 63% 9. The students need to be motivated to want to learn something N = 218 n = 5 2% n = 8 4% n = 205 94% 10. I must train the students’ social skills N = 218 n = 12 6% n = 30 14% n = 176 81% 11. The individual school and society outside shall have a close working relationship N = 216 n = 11 5% n = 26 12% n = 179 83% 12. Education shall be the same in all schools and not vary between different teachers N = 216 n = 42 19% n = 51 24% n = 123 57% 13. Students are responsible and independent N = 218 n = 23 11% n = 72 33% n = 123 57% 14. I shall train the students to be independent individuals N = 216 n = 14 6% n = 24 11% n = 178 82% 15. Teaching shall relate to life outside of school N = 217 n = 7 3% n = 20 9% n = 190 88% 16. Students learn most when they work together N = 217 n = 12 5% n = 41 19% n = 164 75% 17. Teaching shall build on students’ earlier experiences N = 215 n = 12 6% n = 29 13% n = 174 81% 151Annika Käck. The Use of Digital Technologies in Swedish Teacher Education ... Questions in the survey N =  Strongly disagree/ Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree/ Strongly Agree 18. I must create an encouraging atmosphere which promotes the students’ development N = 217 n = 2 1% n = 9 4% n = 206 95% 19. Teaching shall be aligned with the students’ understanding N = 218 n = 3 1% n = 6 3% n = 209 96% 20. I shall take care of and cherish the students N = 216 n = 18 8% n = 58 27% n = 140 65% 21. The focus shall be on the teaching process and not the end product N = 216 n = 26 12% n = 57 26% n = 133 62% 22. Information technology must be integrated in teaching N = 218 n = 7 3% n = 33 15% n = 178 82% 23. I would rather work in a team than alone N = 218 n = 21 10% n = 55 25% n = 142 65% 152 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 DIGITALIZATION AS A PROCESS OF ASSISTANCE IN THE TRANSPARENCY OF UNIVERSITY TEACHING Ragmi Mustafa University “Kadri Zeka” Gjilan, Kosovo Kujtim Mustafa Kosovo Xhevdet Thaqi University “Kadri Zeka” Gjilan, Kosovo Basri Ahmedi University “Kadri Zeka” Gjilan, Kosovo Ekrem Halimi University “Kadri Zeka” Gjilan, Kosovo ABSTRACT This is a  project with objectives to study and to apply the  surface of the  hardware and software part of the panel with LED diode lamps. Much more is focused on the programming of LED matrix diodes located on 16×96 electronic panels, respectively 16 rows of 96 columns. Also, there is elaborated the study of the mode of operation, composition, coding and use of software for panel diodes. In the  focus of all this is the  introduction of diode panels in use at “Kadri Zeka” University exactly at the Faculty of Computer Science to provide digital information to students, professors or anyone passing through the premises of the university what is happening inside the classrooms of the Faculty of Computer Science. This happens in real time in accordance with the  schedule of lectures and exercises in the  respective classrooms of the FCS. In fact, this project explains in detail the concept of LED diodes and microcontrollers, their features, operation, power supply and work with 0 [VDC] and 5 [VDC] voltages, respectively 0 and 1 logic bits. Meanwhile, the  project also explains how coding, software building that locks, and unlocks LED diodes on a 96×16 LED diode panel, thereby producing text on the  panel (display, screen) in static, mobile, animation or up-down, left and right movements according to the time allocated to the timers of the microcontrollers. Such action achieves the goal of the digitalization project of the classrooms of the Faculty of Computer Science. Keywords: LED diodes, light-emitting diode panels, digitization, microcontrollers, memory, microprocessors, programming codes, software. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.10 Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi 153Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Introduction While having lessons in different classes at University “Kadri Zeka”, it happened so often to interrupt from the  outside from students and professors who had opened the door in order to see if it is free for studying. Such a behavior even without intention of students and professors, irritated the  rest of the people who were studying inside the  classroom. Therefor, we as a group of professors of this university have analyzed the problem and came to the  solution such this digitalization. With this solution has passed the problem of interruption and now all the students and professors are studying without interruption from outside, first in all the classrooms of Faculty of Computer Science in University “Kadri Zeka”. Materials and metods In order to get rid of those problems with interruptions during the  studying process are held a  long discussions, consulting, meetings between students, professors, administrative staff of Faculty of Computer Science and meetings with working groups of students and professors. Within the  working group of students and professors were also the  authors of this paper and also the  dean of the  faculty. After the  all discussions it was concluded that the problem can be solved with panels of diodes of size 96 × 16 above the  entrance doors of each classroom, and the programming of them dynamically also at the real-time according to scheduling timetable for lessons, and the  updates of the  panels will eliminate the problems of disturbing while opening the doors of classrooms at the critical time while the lessons are held. In the continuation we will exploire and describe the  programming of LED matrix diodes located on 16×96 electronic panels, respectively 16 rows of 96 columns. Also, there is elaborated the study of the mode of operation, composition, coding and use of software for panel diodes. In the focus of all this is the introduction of diode panels in use at “Kadri Zeka” University to provide digital information to students, professors or anyone passing through the premises of the university. Characteristics of LED Matrix Panel The panel that is the  object of study and review is not the  most qualitative in the market, but performs the function for which it is explored, and any other model works according to the same principles. 154 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 1. LED display 96×16 with unlit LED diodes (switch off) Figure 2. LED panel diodes 96×16 Figure 3. LED Matrix 96×16 Panel with LED Diodes (switched on) Figure 4. Panel Microcontroller and electronic Card Model HD-E65 for LED Diodes of Panel 96×16 Figure 5. Led Panel 96×16 diodes and information about what is currently happening in the room B24 FSHK’s 155Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Figure 6. Two panels connected physically and present the inscription of the University Figure 7. Moving text, digital day and time Table 1. Characteristics of LED panel 96×16 diodes (from Pond, R. J. and Rankinen J. L, 2008) Model HD – E65 Chip type Supports only green color Distance between LEDs 10 [mm] Supply voltage and electricity 5 [V] 40 [A] Luminance ≥ 7500 cd/m2 (for outdoor) Light module format 32 × 16 LED LED number for module 512 LED Panel Dimensions 110 × 10 × 22 [cm] The amount of power consumption 20 [W] – 40 [W] Number of modules 3 Angle of view 120° horizontal, 60° vertical Working temperature -20 [°C] ~ + 60 [°C] Supply to the city’s electrical network Alternative electricity 100 ~ 240 [VAC] LED diodes for panel 96 × 16 LED Total number of LEDs on the panel 1536 LED 156 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ML 96 x 16 R (model: HD E-65) and Led Diodes The digital display is able to emit static text, moving, displacement, animation, cyclic, scroll, slug, blinker, that text moves from left to right, from right to left, bottom-up, top-down or similar movements. Show the correct time, date, temperature and even one or more rows depending on the number of diodes according to the lines of the display. Relatively with high resolution (from Pond, R. J. and Rankinen, J.  L, 2008). 24 types of animations can be selected for text you can adjust the speed of the text movement. The possibility of the timer display option that automatically activates or deactivates the  device programs within certain time intervals. In the  computer is formed a  text, the  module is programmed and it can be stored and then transferred to USB connected to the  appropriate port of the  diode panel and transferred as text on the display. The text on the digital display is easily programmed through software that works in the Windows operating system. The  system recognizes and can perform with different types of fonts that are used on the  Windows operating system (from Pond, R. J. and Rankinen, J. L., 2008). The  LED panel programming is performed through the respective software installed on the personal computer and transferring the program through USB port with USB memory, via RF or Wi-Fi technologies (from Pond, R.  J. and Rankinen, J. L., 2008)! Digit:  ML96×16R; HD2016 LED Display Controller; Card Model: HD E-65 Figure 8. Incription display using LED green diodes Illuminating Diode (LED) LED is the abbreviation of English words “light-emitting diode”, that is, a  light-emitting diode. The illuminating diode is built in the same way as the usual semiconductor diode. It will work if it is polarized on the right side. The  intensity of the  light is regulated by the  current which flows through the diode also exponentially. The diode will not emit light when it is polarized in the  opposite direction (Milman-Halicias, 1972; SK Bhattachary, 2000). 157Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. The color of the  light emitted depends on the  type of semiconductor and the added impurities. The diode produced by gallium phosphate (GaP) emits red light while that of gallium arsenide phosphate can emit light green or yellow (Milman- Halicias, 1972; SK Bhattachary, 2000). The graphic symbol and characteristics of the  light-emitting diode are shown in Figure 9 as follows: Figure 9. Characteristics of LED diodes (D. Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, 2004) The advantages of light-emitting diodes are: • small size • safety at work • long term service • work with low tensions and currents • small losses of electricity • great work speed. Usability LED Light-emitting diode are used for signaling, through which the open or closed status of an electronic circuit is indicated. Especially they are implemented in bright light indicators (Philip Burgess, 2016; D. Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, 2004). LED diodes look like in figure10: 158 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 10. Types of LED light-emitting diodes by color enlightening Blue light emits LED diodes in the  electromagnetic waveband from 450 to 500 [nm] – (nanometers). Green light emits LED diodes in the  electromagnetic waveband from 500 to 600 [nm] – (nanometers). Red light emits Led diode in the electromagnetic waveband from 600 to 690 [nm] – (nanometers). At the moment of power supply of LED diodes with semiconductor material content of gallium arsenide phosphate and its positive polarization leads to electron bulging causing the production of light waves in the range of 550 to 640 [nm]. Breaking light on the conic lenses of the observer’s eye (human) creates a sense of perception of the green color according to the spectrum of the colors of the light waves (Philip Burgess, 2016; D. Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, 2004). In other cases, semiconductor material and semiconductor diodes will produce light beams at other intervals of the wavelength and creates a sense of perception of the respective color, always according to electromagnetic spectrum ranges of electromagnetic wavelengths as shown in Figure 11. Figure 11. RGB base color spectrum acquired by the length range of the light beam (electromagnetic wave) (D. Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, 2004) 159Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Lightining Diode (LED) LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected to an electrical circuit. They are often used as a  pilot lamp in electronic applications to show when the circuit is running or not (Milman-Halicias, 1972). In a right polarized diode, free electrons pass the union of p-n contact and become conductive. If these electrons pass from a higher energy level to a  lower power level, they generate energy. In ordinary diodes like Silicium (Si) or Ge (Germanium), most of this energy goes in the form of warmth. In other materials such as gallium (Ga), Arsenic (As) and Phosphorus (P) or Gallium-Phosphorus (GaP), the number of photons of light is sufficient to create a  visible light source. In light emitting diodes, this energy radiates as light. The most important part of an LED is a  semiconductor chip placed in the  center of the  lamp. The  chip has two layers: the  p layer has mainly positive electrical loads and the  layer n with negative electrical loads. When a  sufficient voltage is applied to the  diode, the  electrons can flow easily in one direction to the p and n layer contacts. So it starts to flow the  current, because layer electrons n has enough energy to move to the p layer (Milman-Halicias, 1972). When an electron moves and falls on a  positive load, both loads are recombined, so when an electron hits a  hole, it falls to a  lower level of energy and emits energy in the form of a photon. Whenever an electron is recombined with a positive load, the potential electric energy is transformed into electromagnetic energy (Milman- Halicias, 1972). Graphic symbol of enlightening diodes is given in Figure 12. Figure 12. Graphic symbol of LED light-emitting diodes (Robert J. Pond, Jeffrey L. Rankinen, 2008) 160 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 13 shows how a LED diode connects to an electrical circuit. (c) Figure 13. Electrical scheme of a LED diode and the p-n contact (Milman-Halicias, 1972) a) the  electric polarization circuit of straight LED illuminating diodes b) 7 segment LED display. c) p-n contact with cathode and anode of the semiconductor diode. A seven segment display contains seven LED diodes. Each LED diode is called a segment. In figure (a) there is shown a segment of a 7-segment display as well as the series-related resistors used to limit the current value of the  diode and its protection. Given the  supply voltage of LED diodes from 0 to 5 [VDC] and the permissible current from 0 to 20 [mA], the LED diodes are connected to serial-resistor whose resistance is calculated according to the Omit Law: Example: For supply of 5 [VDC] voltage to LED diodes and a 10.63 [mA] current flow permissible within the  range of {0–20 [mA]}, according  to the  Omit Law, calculate the  required resistance of the  resistor needed to connect to the diode in series: 161Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Some of the LED uses in everyday life are: • architectural lighting • indicators (condition indicators) in many electronic devices • traffic signals and road signs • handheld flashlight • remote controls thanks to the infrared LED • optical fiber for traffic • for Christmas tree lights • LED anti-acne phototherapy has been effective in the disappearance of acne for a 3-month period, • lighting panels and other textual descriptions. Disadvantages of LED usage: LEDs are more expensive currently than other lighting technologies. LED performance generally depends on the ambient temperature in which it works. By operating the LED at high ambient temperatures, this may result in overheating of the diode and lead to damage (drilling effect) and to malfunction. Microcontrollers The microcontroller contains microprocessor, memory and a  large number of peripheral devices such as timers (timer relays), serial ports, input / output pin terminals, numerators, analog inputs and so on (Warwick Smith, 2016). All of these are within a silicon circuit in the form of a built- in system. Examples of built-in systems are: calculators, computers, and smart phones. The  8x8 LED diode panel and the  programming code for their connection are defined in Appendix A. The microcontroller system architecture has changed from time to time, but what is left behind is the  programming language C (Warwick Smith, 2016). The programming language consists of alphanumeric characters, syntax of commands, functions which constitute a program code comprehensible to man, respectively the programmer. On the  other hand, the  execution of the  programming code on the  computer is performed when the  program code is compiled in the  machine language. This implies that each alphanumeric sign of the  programming code is converted to the  binary code (0 and 1 logic) according to the  international agreement the ASCII table or the extended EBDCIC table (Warwick Smith, 2016). This, in effect, represents the string of square time voltages of the  lowest level 0 [VDC] and highest 5 [VDC] respectively. 162 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Meanwhile, 5 [VDC] voltage supplies LED light-emitting diodes, which causes LED diode brightness, while 0 [VDC] voltage fails to arouse the illumination of LED diodes (Warwick Smith, 2016). All input data are placed in the  microcontroller memory. From the  microcontroller memory, the  input data is processed in the micro- processor for processing and the  results obtained according to the respective software or programming code are stored in the  memory and transmitted to the  respective ports of peripheral devices and in this case the 96  ×  16  diode panel where diodes are placed within an electronic plate (Warwick Smith, 2016). If the  microcontroller memory inserts the  letter B and the  voltmeter (voltage measuring instrument) it will be possible to measure the voltages of each bit in turn we will show the  voltage measurements as in the following figure 14: Figure 14. Chart tensions 0 [VDC] 5 [VDC], presentation by binary numbers 1 and 0 logic Presentation of binary digit 1 with voltage of 5 [VDC] or any other value depends on the  technical characteristics and electronic components of the microcontroller system. 8-bit array: belongs to the decade number because: (01000010)2=0 ∙ 2 0 + 1 ∙ 21 + 0 ∙ 22 + 0 ∙ 23 + 0 ∙ 24 + 0 ∙ 25 + 1 ∙ 26 + 0 ∙ 27 = 2 + 64 = 66 = (66)10 viewed at the ASCII – code table, this belongs to letter B. Why to work with binary numbers? Programming of built-in electronics such as microcontrollers consists of communication with hardware devices that are related to the microcontroller, as well as the  devices located in the microcontroller itself (memory, processor, timer and other stuff) (Warwick Smith, 2016). 163Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Let us consider the  microcontroller to the  output are connected four light-beam diodes as shown in Figure 15. Figure 15. Logic circuit, how the diodes are turned on by the microcontroller (Warwick Smith, 2016) To connect the LEDs D1 and D4 to the LED diode, these LEDs will be able to transfer binary digits 1 0 0 1. As binary numbers are archived in the form of voltage levels. Indeed, we connect the 5 [VDC] voltage to anode of the diode D1, 0 [VDC] to anode of the diode D2, 0 [VDC] to anode of the diode D3 and 5 [VDC] to anode of the D4 diode. In this case, the LEDs D1 and D4 will illuminate while the LEDs D2 and D3 will not illuminate. Memories In microcontrollers and built-in systems there are two types of memories, called ROM and RAM (Warwick Smith, 2016). ROM memory – This type of memory is used to archive the program that is written and compiled. This is a durable memory and that even when power supply disconnects does not lose its content (Warwick Smith, 2016). RAM memory – Memory RAM is used to store variables and data from the microcontroller work program. Data and variables can also be changed during the work of the program. This type of memory is not stable which means that with the termination of the power supply its content are lost or deleted at all. SDRAM SRAM and EPROM memory are often used for memory expansion (Warwick Smith, 2016). Archiving of data in memory The data in the memory is placed in the form of a byte sequence. Each byte possesses its unique address and can be addressed as in Table 2. Data in the memory can be recorded and read. Bit positions in a memory address from 0 to 7 of a byte! 164 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 2. Presentation of data storage (bytes) in memory Appearance of the circuit (chip) memory In addition to ROMs of RAM, many types of microcontrollers also have an additional data storage memory called SRAM (Warwick Smith, 2016). Figure 16 shows an SRAM with a  capacity of 2 kB (kiloBytes). Each memory byte is called a  cell and may contain logical levels respectively logic bits 0 and 1. Figure 16. Memory circuit, 8-bit S-RAM VDD and GND: power supply to chip A0 to A10: Address bus – data byte address placed here D0 to D7: Data bus – 8 bit data byte read and written here CS: Chip select OE: Output enable Control bus WE: Write enable } 165Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Microprocessor access to memory and peripheral devices The microprocessor contains Address Bus, the Data Bus, and the Control Bus. The  memory connection with the  processor is performed through the  respective buses of the  two main microcontroller devices (Warwick Smith, 2016). When the microprocessor is supplied with power its counter is set to 0. If the  permanent memory (RAM) that contains the  program is connected through the  microprocessor circuit, the  microprocessor will receive the  first instruction (instruction is a  binary number) of the programming code and executes it. The microprocessor program counter increases for one and receives the next programming instruction at address 1 of the  memory and executes it. The  microprocessor counter continues to increase for one by enabling execution of the codebook instructions to the latest programming instruction as in Figure 17. int main(void) { DDRB = 0x20; // set bit 5 of DDR register which makes PB5 an output while(1) { PORTB = 0x20; // swich LED on Delay(); PORTB = 0x0; // swich LED off Delay(); } } void Delay(void) { volatile unsigned long count = 100000; while (count--); } Figure 17. Connecting microprocessor with memory and peripheral devices Pins and ports of microcontroller Microcontrollers possess a  relatively large number of pins known as input / output pins (I / O – Input / Output) of general implementation. 166 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Pints are defined as outputs serving to connect the microcontroller output connections as in the present case for switching and disconnection of LED lighting diodes as well as input pins for reading logic levels 0 or 1 located in the  microcontroller pin (Warwick Smith, 2016). 8-bit microcontrollers possess 8-bits ports that represent pin I / O groups labeled as ports A (PORTA), B (PORTB), C (PORTC), and so on. Switching on and switching off the LED light-emitting diodes in the electronic board When the  built-in microcontroller system is connected, all of its pins are initially defined as inputs. To switch on or off LED light-emitting diodes placed on an electronic board, we need to set or describe the values in the  respective data entry port (DDR – Data Migration Data Logger). Therefore, for access to Port A, the DDRA register is used, Port B is used for DDRB and so on, where LED diodes are connected (Warwick Smith, 2016). Figure 18 shows the memory registers that are required for the control of LED lighting diodes on the Arduino Uno electronic board, which also applies to other microcontrollers wherever they are placed on the electronic board. Figure 18. Memory registers in Arduino Uno (Warwick Smith, 2016) In the  pin with index number 5 (PB5) of the  plate (Arduino Uno) is connected the LED Led Illumination. If the bit with position 5 of DDRB is described or transmitted logical energy level or be 1 then port B ordinal number 5 (PB5) is set as PIN DOWN. The hexadecimal number to be described in this case in the register is: (20) 16 or 0×20, in which case the LED will be illuminated. Therefore, if logic or beam 1 is described in the  register, this is the  fact that the LED diode is supplied with a  voltage of 5 [VDC] which will switch off its illumination. 167Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. The binary number in the  register (00100000) 2 is converted to the hexadecimal as follows: (00100000)2 = (0010 0000)2 (0010)2 = 0 ∙ 2 0 + 1 ∙ 21 + 0 ∙ 22 + 0 ∙ 23 = 2 (0000)2 = 0 ∙ 2 0 + 0 ∙ 21 + 0 ∙ 22 + 0 ∙ 23 = 0 Therefore, the hexadecimal number is: (20)16! This happens with the best intention that data in programming language C are written in hexadecimal format rather than binary format! The  programming code example C in the programming language C for diode input is defined as follows: The result of this programming code in the  programming language C is that in the  electronic board where LED diode is connected, the  same to switch it on or off the LED diode to pulsate by switching on and off at a high frequency! The file: io.h located at the  beginning of the  program code enables the registry to be accessible for access. Setting logic 1 to the set bit position in the DDRB registry creates the  corresponding pin declaration option as OUTPUT PIN on the PORTB port. In the loop while (1) the PORTB register is set to enable the LED diode to light up, provided that the corresponding bit in the  log has the  logical value 1, the same bit is again set but in logical value 0 in order to switch off the  LED diode light. Calling the  Delay () function between the  LED diode switch on ensures that the LED diode remains in the turned on state and turned off enough at a high frequency so that it is visible to the human eye, creating the impression of the constant illumination. With the  while (count) command is reached that the  program cycle is repeated whenever the  counter count = 100000 decreases for one to the 0 value when also the  command while (count--) gets the  false value. This actually determines the timing of the LED dialing switch disconnection. At the end of this time according to volatile unsigned long count counter (100000) the program comes out of the cycle and completes its work. Array Programming language C are successive memory locations that archive specific type of data. For example, the programming string C, consisting of 5 integers (Warwick Smith, 2016), is defined as follows: int arr_num[5]; or unsigned char seq[ ]; Through the  definition of the  arrays, it is easy to switch on and off LED light diodes placed on an electronic board (LED DIODE PANEL)! The  following programming code initiates the  array through a  set of numbers that are described on the LED for their switch on and off. Such array is known as a reference table. 168 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Connecting four LED diodes to the pin terminals of PC0, PC1, PC2 and PC3 microcontrollers is explained in the  same way as before (Warwick Smith, 2016)! The  values in the  full-range string are the  values that are described (placed) on the  microcontroller output port for LED light- disconnection and disconnection. The array of the given numbers is 1, 2, 4, 8, 6, 9, 15, 5, 10, 5, 10. One- dimensional array numbers should be converted to hexadecimal format so that they are read in the file. The programming code for this case of four LED diodes is defined as follows: #define F_CPU 16000000UL #include #include int main(void) { unsigned char seq[ ] = {0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x06, 0x09, 0x0F, 0x05, 0x0A, 0x05, 0x0A}; int ind; DDRC = 0x0F; // lower 4 bits of port C are outputs while(1) { for (ind = 0; ind < sizeof(seq); ind++) { PORTC = seq[ind]; _delay_ms(1000); } } } The result of this program code looks like in Figure 19. LED switched on diode LED switched off diode Figure 19. LED diode connection according to matrix programming code (Warwick Smith, 2016) 169Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. After defining the array and defining the variable that should be used as an index on the array elements, the C port will be tuned for connecting the four diodes to the corresponding pin PC0, PC1, PC2 and PC3 before it is put into operation while(1). If you want to present the letter F in a display panel with 12 rows and 4 LED diode columns as shown in Figure 20, write the program code in C as follows: #define F_CPU 16000000UL #include #include int main(void) { unsigned char seq[ ] = {0x0F, 0x08, 0x08, 0x08, 0x08, 0x08 0x0E, 0x08, 0x08, 0x08, 0x08, 0x08}; int ind; DDRC = 0x0F; // lower 4 bits of port C are outputs while(1) { for (ind = 0; ind < sizeof(seq); ind++) { PORTC = seq[ind]; _delay_ms(1000); } } } Figure 20. The LED lighting diodes forming the letter F 170 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The HD-E65 LED panel software, consisting of 96 LED diode arrays and 16 rows also LED diodes (96×16) known as: HD2016 Figure 21. The look of the PowerLed 96×16 Test software PowerLed is a  software used for programming RGB matrix panels, it contains a collection of tools that can be used to program different panels (from manual HD2016_Operation_ manual_ V1.0). PowerLed consists of: • Menu bar • Toolbar • Window class • Virtual Panel Window • Feature Window For the programming of the LED panel, in special cases the Software is used which is dedicated to 160×32 panels (160 columns with diodes and 32 rows) model: • HD2016 • Module HD – E65 • Screen Size: 160×32 • Color: Single color • Communication: Com port, U disc, Ethernet • Memory: 2M LED module panel diode 96×16 by the programming software is treated as a matrix of elements set in 16 rows of 96 columns, whose elements are 171Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. the addresses of LED diodes placed in rows and panel columns. Meanwhile, the  positioning of the  text appearing on the  LED panel display is also treated as a plane coordinate system (x, y) oriented towards the x axis and y as in Figure 22. Figure 22. Coordinates of the LED panel 96×16 in the direction of the axis (x, y) respectively LED panel 160×32 Therefore, for panel programming, we need to consider which software is available for use. When programming a LED panel with a 96×16 LED diode via a software module for 160×32 LED diode panels, it is necessary to determine the start of the software co-ordinate system so that we can set the text at the top of the panel from left to right (from Pond, R. J. and Rankinen, J. L, 2008). Otherwise, we will not be able to see the  desired text because the  placement of the  text will remain defined outside the  positive (real) coordinates of the coordinate system (from Pond, R. J. and Rankinen, J. L, 2008). For this case, if the  software is designed for 160 columns of 32 rows, then in the extension of the x-axis, move right to: 160 – 96 = 64 positions, which will be considered the  point (0.0) for the  96-column panel and 16  rows! This is done in the  window part as in Figure 23 as follows. Of course this is achieved by selecting the  menus as follows: screen1 / program1 / text1 and window displacement for 64 points in the positive direction of the x axis, while in the direction of y axis only half of the field is transmitted because: 32 : 2 = 16! Figure 23 shows coordinating the LED array 96 × 16 coordinates via the 160 × 32 diode software 172 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 23. Allocation coordinates of LED panel diode 96×16 160×32 through software diodes The rest of the use of the software whether it is designed for 96×16 and that for the 160×32 LED diodes is indistinguishable in essence. Through programming software for LED panels, it is possible to program up to 1000 programs in a screen so that in each program they can be divided up into 20 different areas (from Pond, R. J. and Rankinen J. L, 2008). However, the programming software for LED panels can also be granted to whom will their module be as follows: The File / New Screen menu is selected and in the  open window the  password or password 168 is set (according to the  manufacturer’s recommendations, implied) and in the next window are set the parameters that correspond to the panel LED available to us after setting parameters and confirming they do not need to be maneuvered in coordinating the coordinates. After this tuning, the plane coordinates (x, y) look like as in Figure 24. Figure 24. Synchronization windows – adjusting the programming software with the LED panel model that we have available 173Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Figure 25. The window obtained with coordinates of origin according to axis boshtit (the width of the display field) and (the height of the display field) Screen respectively LED display with 96×16 enlightening diodes and distribution of pixels according to the axis x and y appears as in Figure 26. Figure 26. Screen respectively LED display with 96×16 enlightening diodes as well as pixel distribution by axis x and y Menu bar The software for programming LED Panels contains menus by which we work and manipulate with PowerLed. With this software you can choose text with a great opportunity of using different fonts, setting the analogue but also the digital clock, adjusting the time of text display on the screen, full programming according to a time period for one or more days, weeks, months and so for several years. Meanwhile, a temperature thermometer (Type: AM2301) can be set for temperature measurement. The LED panel, according to the software, can also be used for numbering by increasing or decreasing number, as a device can be used for the numbering of vacancies in a smart auto parking. Next, some programming methods will be displayed according to the menus defined by the programming software. If we look at the display window where the coordinate values of the axis x and y are set (Screen1 / program1 / text1) in this case, the width is 48 while the height 8 means that the software enables four fields to move the text. The mouse can easily capture and release the edges of the 48X8 frame until the 96X16 screen size is reached to write in a single full 96X16 diode screen area as shown in Figure 25. 174 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 27. Menu bar Figure 28. Tools Menu(T) Figure 29. Operation Menu (O) Figure 30. File Menu (F) 175Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Toolbar Figure 31. Toolbar It consists of a collection of tools used for building various programs that contain text, pictures, animations. Each of these tools performs a  specific function within PowerLed and are useful in building different programs, the  use of these tools is limited only by creativity. They can be used as often as we need. Program tool It is used for the introduction of a new program within a screen (screen1) Figure 32. Program tool Text tool – It is used for inserting text in certain areas of the screen Figure 33. Text tool Time tool – It is used to set the analog or digital clock in a certain area of the screen Figure 34. Time tool 176 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Temp+Humi tool – It is used for temperature setting if the thermometer is connected to the LED panel: Figure 35. Temp+Humi tool Preview tool – It is used for presenting the text of the program before it is stored in memory or transmitted via RF equipment or Wi-Fi technology in the LED panel 96×16. Figure 36. Preview tool Figure 37. An example of the Preview window U disk tool It is used for exporting screen (Screen1) prepared with certain programs and texts in memory (USB) provided that the Memory Flush is placed in the relevant computer port. After export to Memory Card (USB), the same goes out of the computer port and is placed on the LED panel port. In this case the program is read and the OK message is displayed on the LED panel. At this moment, the  flash memory is removed from the  LED panel and the  device works according to the  program now installed on the  96×16 LED panel! 177Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. Figure 38. U disc tool Property window This window allows you to use all of the tools found in PowerLed. It is determined that a text that appears on the panel for a certain interval then comes next with the animation that I choose and many other manipulations such as the determination of the amount of diode illumination. With this tool, the text is exported to the peripheral device and in our case on the  flash memory (U Disk). Communication with the  software is performed as in Figure 39. Figure 39. Exporting (transferring) the program in the flash memory (USB) 178 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Results and discussion During the  development of this project, it was hard working with students in order to achieve the good results and to involve the students in the real projects and to teach more practically students with real projects. In this contest are applied the students knowledge from the lessons learned on electronics, programming and mathematics. Result of this project produced the success of eliminating the disturbing cases during the study process in the classrooms because the information what is happening inside the classroom now everyone from outside can take from the diodes panel and can get those information without opening the doors. With this project it is achieved that process of digitalization at faculties will be expended even more in order to have panels each door that need to show information what is going on inside. What about the future In the  future it is planned to be presented and implemented in all the faculties of University “Kadri Zeka” and all the universities of Kosovo. At the  same time it is made the  request from the  working group of professors and students to the Faculty of Computer Science, for such a new implementation. In the mean time will work with working group of students and professors in order to advance with new technology and new way of implementation, also integrating the  Wi-Fi technology and  also RFID to pass the code to the panels, and even more to add the other informations in the actual classrooms. Conclusion There are many ways of digitalization that could happen on the university areas, one of them we have used to digitalize our campus in the university using LED display panels. In our project this feature of panels who do have all the possibilities to write the information and the data could be transfer using USB disk it was very helpful on communicating with the LED panels in our University campus. The  software that uses codes makes it easy to write the text, make animations, and set timers to the LED display panel. We have tested and fully implemented on our university campus where we have digitalized all possible information for students, professors, and others who do use our campus. This was very helpful with U disk exporting the parameters to the LED diode panel display and was quite easy for the  places where the  panels are reached by people but for the places where the panels are placed on the  high height it could not be easy to put the  program each time you 179Ragmi Mustafa, Kujtim Mustafa, Xhevdet Thaqi, Basri Ahmedi, Ekrem Halimi. change. In order to make easier to put the  parameters to panels for the  future work we do propose there could be done also communication using RFID and wireless technology. Figure 39. Electrical circuit of LED diode connection in the  form 8×8 (Philip Burgess, Arduino and compatible boards) References Bhattachary, S. K. (2000). Electrical and Electronic Engineering Materials. New Delhi, India: Khana Publishers. Burgess, Ph. (2016). 32×16 and 32×32 RGB LED Matrix. New York, NY: Adafruit learning system. Burgess, Ph. Arduino and compatible boards. Retrived from http://learn.adafruit. com/32x16-32x32-rgb-led-matrix. Hearn, D.; Baker M. (2004). Computer Graphics with OpenGL. Third Edition, New York, NY: Pearson Prentice Hall. Milman, J.; Halicias, Ch. (1972). Integrated electronics analog and digital circuits and systems, Tokio, Japan: International Student Edition. Pond, R. J. (2019, March) Interfacing 8×8 LED Matrix with Arduino. Retrived from http://www.circuitstoday.com/interfacing-8x8-led-matrix-with-arduino. Pond, R. J.; Rankinen, J. L. (2008). Intraduction Engineering Technology, 8 Edition, Global Edition: PEARSON. Smith, W. A. (2016). C programing with Arduino. New York, NY: AVR Microcontrollers and ATMEL studio. Vision LED, (2019, January 15) retrived from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 7gKcGkaIUxM. 180 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TEACH-GYM: GROW YOUR METHODOLOGIES Maria Giulia Ballatore Politecnico di Torino, Italy Igor Simone Stievano Politecnico di Torino, Italy Anita Tabacco Politecnico di Torino, Italy ABSTRACT This paper reports on a  recent initiative put in action within the  long-lasting connection between a European University and a Central Asia Institution. An Uzbek Technical University, Turin Polytechnic University in Tashkent, has been created in 2009, offering double degree programs under the supervision of Politecnico di Torino, Italy. The differences and educational needs of the  two involved countries stimulated a  contest of ideas, aimed at supporting the  redefinition of teaching methodologies and course contents in bachelor programs. The proposed project becomes a “GYM”, with win-win benefits for both institutions. On one side, more specializing courses are offered, as required by the  role of the  undergraduate education in Uzbekistan, and on the other hand, the experience and methodology are going to be transferred within the  Italian university. Both qualitative and quantitative data have been analysed and presented, based on the  initial selection of the best projects which are implemented starting from the second semester of the current academic year. Keywords: engineering education, international connections, learning by doing, teaching methodology. Introduction Before the  1980s, inside the  Soviet Union’s academia and higher education, there were very little scientific interactions with the  Western countries. In 1990, with the  collapse of socialism, the  Central Asia and Caucasus region is been organized in eight former Soviet republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan, following different reform paths (Çokgezen  & Çokgezen, 2014). https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.11 Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco TEACH-GYM: GROW ... 181Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco . TEACH-GYM: GROW ... In almost all of these countries the  reform package included the  reorganization of curricula, introduction of new standards in student assessments, decentralization and privatization of higher education, privatization and liberalization of textbook publishing, and reorganization of schools (Kirtchik, 2012). Some universities and research institutions, established in the  post- Soviet era, were set up in partnership with foreign institutions and financed by international NGOs, foundations, and local governments. They mostly hire Western educated locals or foreign staff and provide Western style education, usually in English, and more incentives and opportunities for research than the old, state institutions (Pleskovic et al., 2002). In this context, in Uzbekistan the  processes of internationalization of higher education started formally in 1991; but only in 1997, the  new Act on Education and the  National program on Personnel Training was approved by the  government. This act redesigned the  structure of higher education in favour of western educational systems, with 4-year Bachelor studies and 2-year Master courses, underlining the country’s desires to be part of the international community (Eshchanov et al., 2011). Therefore, thanks to these efforts, some foreign universities started their own branch in Uzbekistan. After some years the  Uzavtosanoat SC, General Motors Corporation and Politecnico di Torino (PoliTo, Italy), one of the  biggest technical universities in Europe, reached an agreement on the organization of Turin Polytechnic University in Tashkent (TTPU), the first example of Bachelor internationalization in the  area of Engineering. This private institution was officially established in April 2009 and shortly became the main source of human resources not only for the automotive industry but also for construction and architecture, energy engineering and information technologies. TTPU professors are supported by PoliTo ones with training and exchange periods; PoliTo and TTPU professors are teaching in collaboration and students receive the  diploma of both institutions (double degree) as indicated in Table 1 and the courses are delivered entirely in English. According to the  national Act directions, the  study plan is developed over 4 years: a first preparatory year (PY) managed entirely by Uzbekistan lecturers, supervised by PoliTo, and a triennium (First, Second, Third level) in accordance with the Bologna Process with the courses jointly delivered by PoliTo and TTPU professors. All local lecturers are identified by TTPU and evaluated by PoliTo. During the first academic year (a.y. 2009/10) the number of bachelor’s admissible students was about 200. This maximum number has grown in the years until 350 students in the a.y. 2018/19 with 1200 students that applied for admission. The TTPU structure provides the admission through the  TIL, Test in Laib, similar to that carried out at PoliTo main campus 182 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 in Italy (Ballatore, Montanaro, & Tabacco, 2018). Students that positively pass the test can choose among one of the 3 active study courses according to Table 1. The student composition is mostly male both for cultural reasons and for the type of studies (gender issue in STEM). The Uzbekistan scholar system requires 11 years of school before entering university and, as a  result, students mostly start university at 18 years old. The first cohort of students (2009/10) graduated at the  end of 2013. Table 2 shows the number of graduates per solar year with the details of the individual degree courses. Usually bachelor graduates immediately enter in the working life and only a few of them are enrolling into Master of Science, either in Uzbekistan or abroad (around 10%). This trend is the  opposite to the  Italian situation in which bachelor graduates for about 80% continue their studies and only 20% enter directly into the world of work. Table 1. Active study courses with the relative number of admissible students TTPU study course Related PoliTo degree Number of admissible students Mechanical Engineering Ingegneria Meccanica 200 Information Technology and Automation Systems in Industry Ingegneria Informatica 100 Industrial and Civil Engineering and Architecture Ingegneria Civile 50 Therefore, there are some different curriculum requirements on the  bachelor design that need to fit this different scenario. In particular in Uzbekistan it is been registered a  mismatch between expectations of graduates, from one side, and actual degree of satisfaction with the existing levels of developing employability competence areas, from the  other (Nizamov & Nurjanova, 2017). Aim of the study The 10 years of directional contribution from Italy to Uzbekistan have favoured some critical reflections on the  type of internationalization in place and on the teaching methodology in light of the needs of local reality. Those thoughts can be formulated in the following research questions: • How it is possible to make the  connection between the  two institutions a “win-win” link and not just a simple monodirectional relation from PoliTo to TTPU? 183Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco . TEACH-GYM: GROW ... • In light of the mismatch between higher education expectation and working skills requirements, how can be reviewed the  teaching methodologies and the course contents in bachelor courses? These two points are strongly related as the second question is analysing an aspect of teaching not well developed in Italy. That is, the  impact on higher education caused by the  anticipation of working life after the bachelor graduation. The Uzbek reality thus can become a “GYM”, in the sense that it offers the  opportunity to train by experimenting with these new approaches in order to transfer the methodology and the experience acquired within PoliTo bachelors. Moreover, thanks to the  difference in the  size of the  students’ population (some hundreds in TTPU and thousands in PoliTo), on one side these new approaches are expected to strengthen the in-depth preparation and job-oriented background, and, on the  other hand, they will create a solid and proven tool for the application of a similar teaching framework to a larger group of students. Therefore, to address those research questions, a  contest of ideas, the  “Grow Your Methodology - GYM call”, is been set with financial support for the implementation of the winner projects. Table 2. Graduated students each year for study course 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Mechanical Engineering 68 97 68 64 64 Information Technology and Automation Systems in Industry 18 15 17 29 13 Industrial and Civil Engineering and Architecture 20 32 20 11 23 Total 106 144 105 104 100 >150 Theoretical Framework The internationalization process in place between PoliTo and TTPU try to include all the seven themes described by Teichler: (i) physical mobility of academic staff and students; (ii) recognition of study achievements across borders; (iii) different modes of transfer of knowledge across borders; (iv) internationality in the  substance of higher education; (v) international orientation and attitudes, (vi) similarity of heterogeneity of national systems of higher education; (vii) internationalization as an argument for almost any higher education reform (Teichler, 2010). Starting from those pillars, the project related to the research questions above, the GYM call, is primarily lying on two theories: one psychological, 184 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  operant conditioning (Skinner, 2011; Reynolds, 1975), and the  other pedagogical, the learning by doing (Kolb, 1984). The first one refers to a behaviourist theory in which an action is either incentivized through a reinforcement process or eliminated by a punishment (Figure 1). In particular, this research uses the  effects that a  positive reinforcement process produces. That is, if the  individual behaves as desired, the reinforcers are favourable events or outcomes like praise and rewards. One of the key points behind this theory is that the response that follow a  reinforcing stimulus is voluntary. Moreover, the  GYM, as a  call for idea, is itself the voluntary reward: it inspires and motivates professors in reviewing their teaching methodologies and test new strategies with academic support and coverage of possible extra costs. In this way, the voluntary response is more likely to be done by the individual. On the  pedagogical point of view, the  theoretical framework adopted is the  well-known experimental learning, also called learning by doing. The  father of this theory, Kolb, believes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the  transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984). Therefore, he theorized a  cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages (Figure 2): (i) do, (ii) observe, (iii) think, and (iv) plan. The process starts with a concrete experience in which learner actively does an activity or an experimentation. Then, there is a  reflective observation where there is a  conscious look back at that experience. The  third stage is where the  attempt to think and define a  theory or model of what is performed, the  abstract conceptualization, and, finally, the  trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a  forthcoming experience, the  so-called active experimentation. In this research the  learners are professors willing to experience a new teaching style. The cycle starts with Figure 1. Diagram of operant conditioning 185Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco . TEACH-GYM: GROW ... the  requirement of rethink about their courses both in contents and way of teaching in the Uzbekistan environment. Thanks to this exercise, as in a traditional gym, lecturers can see and judge the changes with the PoliTo technical support, and he/she can think how to generalize it in order to make the active experimentation also at the Italian campus. Materials and Methods A mixed approach is going to be used in order to explain the need for a change in teaching practice and the overall effect of the new bidirectional connections. In particular, the students’ career data have been quantitative analysed, whereas the call elements, i.e. structured projects, interviews and impact, are going to be considered for the qualitative approach. In Uzbekistan, the  anticipation of the  entering the  labour market makes urge experimentation and reformulation of the educational formats, progressively inviting to give space to new forms of experiential teaching, focused on the  student and aligned with local needs, such as industrial environments and technology transfer for the growth of the country. On the  quantitative side the  students’ university careers are been considered, as well as their decision about whether to keep study through a  Master or to work. In particular, the  lesson frequency, and the  rate of success are been analysed. Therefore, it is possible to recognize the presence of two distinct needs: on the  one hand to continue to ensure solid training, and on the  other to foster the  development of intermediate technical skills and a  rapid integration into the world of work. This study has been designed as a “gym” in which professors can grow their teaching methodologies in bachelor courses thanks to some first Figure 2. Kolb’s experimental learning cycle 186 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 job-oriented experimentation actually in place at the Master of Science in PoliTo and the  support of the TEACH (Teaching Engineering Avant-garde Challenge Host) research group. Therefore, professors can train and explore those new ways of teaching in a smaller environment in order to feel more comfortable and implement them also in their Italian courses. The call related to the GYM was sent to the entire PoliTo community of lecturers, both to the ones that already have the responsibility of a course in TTPU, 60 people, and to the remaining not yet involved in the Uzbekistan internationalization project 800 professors. The  above numbers are an average over the 10 years’ experience. In order to participate, each candidate needed to fill an online survey with all the main information about their structured project ideas: • the course addressing the change • the portion of the course to be reviewed • how he/she is willing to review it • how and why is matching with the Uzbek context • expected improvement • interaction with locals (local lecturers, factories and partners) • personal statement • facilitator factors • evaluation of the effectiveness of the new modalities • sustainability after the project • resources (human, economic and logistic). Some constraints were set on the maximum value of economic resources available for each submission and about the creation of new courses, that were not eligible. A commission judges each proposal and decides which one is mature to be implemented in practice at TTPU starting from March 2019. In the  meantime, both a  statistical and a  meta-analysis is performed on the surveys’ content. Results In light of the  10 years of collaboration, a  deep understanding of the  Uzbekistan reality is in force of the  PoliTo professors. Although it is well known that, in average, only approximatively 10% of students decide to continue their education through a  Master of Science, the  teaching methodologies adopted are very similar to the  one in use in Italy. Moreover, due to the  high cost of graduate education in Uzbekistan, a portion of TTPU students generally needs to have some partial job during the  Bachelor studies. This, together with some cultural aspects mainly related to the  freedom of students in attending lectures, directly impact 187Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco . TEACH-GYM: GROW ... the frequency of the lessons, that is stable around 30% for the majority of the course, and the duration of the career, which is extended to 5 years in average over the standard duration of 4. As the  students’ reaction to changes is hard to predict and estimate, during the  first semester (October-December 2018) some tentative approaches were made in two different courses. In both cases the  new methodology was mainly based on a  more experience-based learning through labs and simulations. Students response was very positive as the  number of students attending the  lessons every day almost double (around 60%). In the meantime, the course content was better understood as shows by the  improvement on the  rate of success, both in percentage (gain above 20%) and in grades (increase around 2/30) in these two trials. This first partial experimentation clears up the  potentiality behind the  “GYM” project. In fact, on the  student point of view it represents the  possibility to receive a  more job-oriented education that they found extremely interesting for their future career. In the meantime, professors that get involved were truly satisfied and found positively the external stimulation on reshaping their course both in contents and methods. The  outcome of the project is hence expected to positively impact on both institutions, thus creating a  win-win interrelation. On one side, PoliTo is going to receive a quantitative feedback on the effectiveness of the courses’ reconfiguration in terms of acquired skills, active participation of students in the class and passing rate, with a direct impact on the redesign of the courses delivered in Italy. On the other hand, not only students but also TTPU professors and assistants are expected gain a  lot in terms of experience useful for their future role in their home University, due to their deep involvement in all the phases of the project implementation and class activities. Considering the requirement of residential that the project’s participation indirectly imply, the  call received a  quite high number of submissions: 14 proposals have arrived. They were formulated by 9 out to  11 PoliTo departments, representing the variety of almost all the different scientific areas. These data also tell the  desire of making auto-rethinking of each different discipline. All the proposal’s leaders are or have been somehow already involved in the  TTPU exchange, however in 4 cases the  course reshape includes new people not yet been in the  international mobility. The  involvement of Uzbekistan lecturers is deepened in the  80% of the  submissions requiring some mobility period for them at the  Italian campus or the change in structure in order to better coordinate the contents. Moreover, two submissions consist on an aggregated proposal of different courses, 4 in one case and 5 in the  other. The  idea behind is an interdisciplinary experiential project that includes interactive labs, computer-based simulations and coordination among the  different 188 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 traditional lessons’ topics. Half of the  other 12 ideas were involving the full course, while the remaining 6 were proposing modification only to a portion of the course (Figure 3). Figure 3. Distribution of proposals based on the portion of the course If one considers the  type of proposal based on their impact, the  distribution about the  content of each proposal can affect the  course structure, the  methodology or the  examination process. Almost all the  projects, 13 out of 14, want to modify the  teaching methods; 10 submissions propose a review on the structure; 8 also suggest a review of the examination stage. An in deep literature research was performed by all proposals in order to better match the labor work skills requirements in light of the experience already in place around the  world. Based on this, the  ideas are been categorized by the  approach proposed, that is experimental and labs, problem-based-learning, study support, external expertise. The  majority of the  proposals can be found on the  first group as 9 of them consider the experimental teaching as a possible reinforcement of the skills required by the  labor market. Instead, other 3 adopted the  project-based-learning to address this problem with a direct interaction with local factories and partners. In the  meantime, the  reinforcement of study methods is also a  specific core of 3 submissions in which students are guided to reach autonomy in learning a  technical subject. Only 2 ideas instead include the  involvement in the  theoretical lessons of partners from the  world of work with study case explanation and discussion. The activities are usually organized in small groups (5 out of 14) or require first-of-all a class explanation followed by discussion on groups (3). Instead, the  remaining submissions require either individual works and involvements (4) or the entire class (2) (Figure 4). Moreover, 2 proponents asked to start with a  partial implementation of the  course remodulation on a  portion of students in order to feel more confident with the  new structures and methodologies as well as to understand the students’ reactions. 189Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco . TEACH-GYM: GROW ... Figure 4. Distribution of what type of involvement is required in the proposals After this overall analysis, a commission designed by PoliTo Rector had judged all the proposals in light of the Kolb’s learning cycle. 12 of them where accepted with some suggestions mostly about the concrete start of the  project, whilst the  other 2 required a  review. This rethinking could be necessary because of environmental constrains, like labs capacity, or of technical problem, as a  weak external network. These 2 projects will receive a support during this year in order to be implemented in the future. Partial conclusions (ongoing project) The mental exercise that each professor made for rethink about his/her course and teaching methodology is the  first positive effect of the  GYM. In particular, this effort impacts directly the  TTPU campus and, in the meantime, is indirectly changing the way professors teach at the Italian one. While the  gym exercise become more practical by the  start of each redesigned course, professors will transfer their learning in the  PoliTo courses as well. The project is just started and even if we are far from ultimate conclusions, its preliminary outcome from the  ongoing implementation of the  GYM idea in the  first three courses is extremely positive. In two cases, a boost in the attendance and participation of students is registered. In another, the  evaluation of students based on distributed assessments during the teaching period allowed most of the students passing the exam at the end of the course, well in advance before the coming exam session. Then, the  connection, already in place between a  historical European University and a young Asian Institution, has now a different perspective: from “give to bring” to “win-win”. Italian professors, in fact, can experience a new way of teaching and improve their teaching methodologies; whereas the  Uzbekistan ones continue to grow their teaching and research skills. 190 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Considering the  mismatch between higher education expectation and working skill requirements, the  proposals mainly suggested a  more experimental approach through labs, interactive exercise sections and external visits. The strengthening of factories’ network in each study course is another attempt to create a  stronger connection between bachelor education and working skills. Recommendations/Implications/Future research plans The GYM project is actually ongoing, and a complete analysis of impact will be available in March 2020, when the  experimental stage will end. In the meantime, also the impact that this would have been generating in the Italian campus will be further studied. The replicability of this project requires a high degree of understanding of the  local reality and needs; such as typical students’ behavior, way of teaching of lectures, request of the  labour market. Once the  context information is available the experience can be easily repeated. References Çokgezen, M., & Çokgezen, J. (2014). Internationalization of post-Soviet Economists: Evidence from Central Asia and the  Caucasus. Journal of Economics and Political Economy, 1(1), 26–38. Ballatore, M., Montanaro, L., & Tabacco, A. (2018). TIL: an innovative tool for the recruitment of bachelor engineering students in Italy. International Educational and Research Journal, 4(2), 79–84. Eshchanov, R., Hodjaniyazov, S., & Matlatipov, G. (2011). Development of Distance and E-Learning Based Higher Education in Uzbekistan in Framework of International Collaboration. Journal of Knowledge Management, Economics and Information Technology, 7, 1–6. Kirtchik, O. (2012). Limits and strategies for the  internationalization of Russian economic science: Sociological interpretation of bibliometric data. Laboratorium: Russian Review of Social Research, 4(1), 19–44. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the  Source of Learning and Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Nizamov, A., & Nurjanova, U. (2017). Issues of promoting employability competencies of graduates: case study from Uzbekistan. International conference University - Enterprises Cooperation in Asia: Trends and Challenges (pp. 67–70). Vietnam: Hub4Growth. Pleskovic, B., Åslund, A., Bader, W., & Cambell, R. (2002). Capacity building in economics: Education and research in transition economies. Research Advisory Staff. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Reynolds, G. S. (1975). A primer of operant conditioning. University of Minnesota. Skinner, B. (2011). About behaviorism. New York: Vintage books. 191Maria Giulia Ballatore, Igor Simone Stievano, Anita Tabacco . TEACH-GYM: GROW ... Teichler, U. (2010). Internationalizing Higher Education: Debates and Changes in Europe. Higher education, 48, 5–26. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Rectors and the staff of PoliTo and TTPU for the supplying of resources, data and the fruitful discussion. 192 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TECHNOLOGY AND RELATIONSHIPS IN THE GUIDANCE CONTEXT: AN ARTICLE BASED ON A STUDY OF SUSTAINABLE RELATIONSHIPS IN GUIDANCE SITUATIONS BETWEEN TEACHERS AND STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION Elin Birkeland Markestad Inland University of Applied Sciences, Norway Bjørg Herberg Gloppen Inland University of Applied Sciences, Norway ABSTRACT As teacher educators and mentors, we have long been concerned with establishing an effective guidance tradition among our students and in this way ensuring that each individual student takes care of his/her professional and personal growth. We need more knowledge of what is necessary for guidance to be perceived as meaningful, and thus we must facilitate students’ acquisition of knowledge about guidance. Sustainable relationships between teachers and students are needed, and we must consider how modern technology may be used in an effective and appropriate manner in this context. By ‘sustainable relationships’, we refer to relationships that meet mentees’ needs without reducing their opportunities for promoting new insights. A mentee is an individual who is advised, trained, or counselled by a  mentor, an experienced and trusted adviser who helps a  mentee prepare for the  profession. Online studies, which are becoming increasingly common, provide great opportunities for students to become educated. This technology enables fast and efficient communication between students and supervisors as well as allows users to share competences across campuses and national borders. We are facing a  paradigm shift in education regarding both the  opportunities and challenges of the  technological options available today. While the university sector may not have been at the  forefront of technological development, a number of online studies are nevertheless currently available to students worldwide. In order to determine more about the  opportunities and challenges associated with guidance, we conversed with a selection of students at our institution and asked questions about the  extent to which online guidance can handle the  various aspects of supervision. This research is based on a  survey conducted among 43 fresh students in primary school teacher education and 31 more experienced teachers who are students in a  mentor education program. We chose two such different groups due to our interest in determining https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.12 Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen Technology and Relationships ... 193Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen. Technology and Relationships ... whether teacher experience results in differing perceptions of what guidance means for students. What do students consider important regarding effective guidance? Are technological solutions sufficient for knowledge construction? In any guidance context, there exists a relationship, and the relationship concept is central to several of our questions. Our findings reveal that all students prefer a mentor–mentee relationship that includes elements of recognition and warmth. Keywords: guidance, relations, analogue, digital communication, recognition. Theoretical Perspectives Gregory Bateson (1972) points out that relationships between individuals are fundamental in all forms of communication, and our being part of many different systems is what makes us human: Communication not only consists of identifiable messages sent back and forth, and of the  ever-changing initiatives and responses of dialogue, but also of emotional inner and outer impulses that characterize the relationship, process, change and development of the relationships. Human signs and signals are parts of this process and will probably affect a relation (Eide & Eide, 2017, p. 76). We find that the technological revolution we have experienced in recent years has led to a form of division between those who master technology and those who do not. Advisor and former director of the Norwegian Aftenposten Mobile, Anette Mellbye, claims that no industries will be untouched by the technological revolution (Mellbye, 2016), which will favour companies that heavily invest in algorithms, data, and infrastructure. In practice, this means educational institutions can end up in a backwater if one does not choose to hang onto and provide for technology’s introduction and development in education. Geertrui Smedts (2008) argues in an article referenced in Smeyers and Depaepe (2008) that we are technologicalizing the world through everything related to technology: It is not only the  goals that will be determined by technology, but also the  means to achieve those goals. I will call this tendency the technological submergence of our lives. This will involve reference to the technology of the society we live in, a condition in which everything is seen in terms of instrumental value (Smedts, 2008, p. 111). According to Smedts (2008), some others cleverly find a way through the  phrase ‘paying full attention’ within the  realm of technology. For example, Lambeir (2004) concludes that we ‘...must keep alive our imagination about how to use it (ICT) in multiple ways’ (p. 310) and 194 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 that we should strive for ‘total involvement, or committing one’s entire being’ (p. 314). Regarding educational relationships, Lambeir (2004) concludes that ICT offers opportunities for ‘educational dialogue’, arguing that: ‘... xperimenting with hypertext, websites, virtual design, and online identities contribute to the constitution of the person’ (p.355). ICT is from its point of view more than tools. The Challenges of Technology The colonization of practices under educational control means routine, non-educational issues become defined in terms of (lifelong) learning competencies, the  acquisition of skills, final attainment levels, learning disabilities, and so on. We shall call this tendency the  technological submergence of our lives, which involves reference to the  technology of the  society within which we live—a condition wherein everything seems to be perceived in terms of instrumental value. Technology’s immediately visible impact is that youngsters are perceived as the experts while parents must ‘catch up’ (Smedts, 2008). In the context of our field, this may imply that young students are experts in technology and we, as mentors, are novices. But what is really included in the guidance concept? We further elucidate this idea below. Understanding Guidance In general, we can assert that guidance is facilitated between many different people with various occupational backgrounds and experience levels. In a  teacher education context, guidance must characterize both teaching and practice; in a  practical application, this means guidance should be a  known and used tool that ensures pedagogical development and growth in mentees. For students, receiving guidance includes both direct meetings and a digital learning platform. With regard to the concept of guidance itself, several definitions are used within the  academic environment, and several Norwegian researchers suppose there likely exists no consensus on a definitive definition (Tveiten, 2013). Many individuals who work inside the Norwegian guidance field are well aware of Gunnar Handal and Per Lauvås’s (2017) ‘action–reflection model’, which concerns reflection before, during, and after an action to ensure the mentee receives high-quality development and learning. Ole Løw (2009) claims guidance is a  method of stimulating students for their own learning, defining it as a  common term that encompasses counselling, supervision, consultation, mentoring, and coaching. In such a comprehensive definition, guidance is defined within two dimensions: (1) guidance and road searching and (2) answers and questions. Løw (2009) suggests that the term guidance is reserved for the complementary relationship 195Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen. Technology and Relationships ... between the more experienced and competent and the less experienced and often less competent in a teaching, educational, or vocational context. In English language literature, the  concepts of counselling and supervision are used interchangeably, while consultation, guidance, and mentoring are additionally identified in this field (Butterworth & Faugier, 1998). The main difference between, for example, counselling, mentoring, supervising, and coaching, may be considered the  mentee’s freedom to determine his/her own actions without too much external influence. The Congruent Supervisor Carl Rogers (1957) was greatly important for the  development of the  guidance field and guidance pedagogy at the  international level. In Rogers’s (1957) theory, recognition and acceptance are some of the most fundamental in the  face of the  other, which means the  mentor sees the mentee as an individual and independent person and thus accepts his attitudes, actions, and narratives. In fact, this concept means accepting and being neither judgemental nor condescending towards others, thus resulting in the mentee’s opportunity for self-reflection. For this situation, Rogers draws the following picture: ‘If a person can be understood, he or she belongs’ (Thorne, 2003, p. 39). Rogers (1957) raises the  concept of unconditionally positive respect, which includes a mentor’s warmth and care for a mentee as well as his/her ability to set aside his/her own concerns during the guidance situation. It is necessary that one pay attention to what the other must come by (Rogers, 1957). Taking care of the  mentee also requires that the  mentor practice empathetic behaviour and consequently be concerned with how the mentee perceives him/her. According to Rogers (1957), when a human experience is understood in a  guidance situation, it directly affects the  relationship between the mentor and the mentee. Finally, Rogers (1957) discusses the  importance that the  mentor be congruent, which we understand as being oneself in a genuine and sincere way in both open-mindedness and presence. The author asserts that when the  mentor is genuine and sincere, he may become aware of himself as a  human being, which is important when helping others. Eye contact is a  practical example of effectively connecting in a  conversation, and in guidance situations, it is important that the mentee experience the mentor as trustful, helpful, and sincere. Relationship Value According to Marion Jones (2010), the  supervisor must hold a critical understanding of the supervisory role, the potential tensions accompanying such a  role, and the  capacity for critical self-evaluation. In addition to 196 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 professional and academic knowledge and skills, a  tutor requires strong interpersonal evaluation and communication skills as well as emotional intelligence (Jones, 2010; cited in Smith & Ulvik, 2018, p. 124). Gregory Bateson (1972) focused his attention on describing relationships rather than individuals or human traits. Bateson spoke warmly about the  actions or reactions resulting from the  relationships one forms as a human being. In Bateson’s (1972) theory, relationships exist very basically between phenomena and between people in all forms of communication. Moreover, communication simultaneously takes place at several levels, which we can understand by considering that a  conversation contains content but also concerns an individual’s relationship to the  content and to the  other individual engaging in the  conversation. In this sense, we communicate at several levels simultaneously. If we, for instance, raise the  understanding of what I communicate to you by one level, then we are concerned with your understanding of my understanding of the conversation’s content. In Bateson’s (1972) theory, all communication is constantly meta-communicative, meaning we always communicate about content when we communicate about our relationship. If one supervises a  student, then, as a  supervisor, one should consider that a  manual (guidance manual) has several levels. In the  light of the  relationship concept, a  relationship already exists in that a  guidance situation has been established. The  relationship’s content may depend upon how well the  supervisor and the  supervised know each other and how their communication is established. It is necessary to be aware that communication involves both verbal and non-verbal aspects. Establishing an effective relationship concerns, for example, the words we use, the questions we ask, and how we present our messages while simultaneously opening up a dialogue. On the other hand, communication is about our body language, such as how we use our eyes, how we use our hands, if one has an open or closed posture, and what kinds of facial expressions match the other party in the guide. Establishing a Relationship in a Guidance Situation In Bjørn Killingmo’s (1998) article, the  attention is directed to the relationship that is established when two individuals converse, wherein the focus is–among other aspects–drawn to what each individual carries into the conversation. For example, situations may arise wherein an individual who seeks a conversation partner has an agenda that is not perceived by the  other. At the  same time, the  mentor brings with him his values and morals, which can be decisive regarding what kind of guidance he offers. This backdrop can trigger negative energy in the person seeking guidance and thus end in his/her resignation. 197Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen. Technology and Relationships ... An experienced teacher often possesses knowledge of what works in given situations and can easily give into the  temptation of becoming a  counsellor based on what is immediately perceived as one’s need for guidance. Such attitude can indicate the  importance of both listening to what is spoken and at the same time studying the other’s body language to decipher the message. By concluding too quickly, the supervisor is at risk of becoming one who limits a student’s creativity rather than opening up new and alternative solutions. In order for the dialogue to be fruitful and produce the best possible result, it is necessary that the mentee experience security and recognition; in this context, recognition with others is a key concept. Axel Honneth (1992) claims that the  development of personal identity requires the experience of recognition. Honneth (1992) describes various arenas for recognition, including close relationships, the  legal sphere, and social contexts. The legal sphere is what we experience when we enter society and meet laws, rules, and regulations that establish various opportunities, limitations, and rights. The  social sphere involves valuation, in which we experience responses to positive attributes, contribute to public benefit, and experience ourselves as individuals. We highlight four essential elements in relation to the recognition concept: to be seen, to be listened to, to understand, and to receive confirmation. In order for a human to experience recognition and experience as a subject, Honneth (1992) asserts that these four elements are fundamental (Schibbye, 2004). Recognized Norwegian psychologist Dag Ø. Nordanger discusses the  importance of interpersonal competence in therapeutic meetings and highlights the strength that lies in the therapist–patient alliance (Nordanger, 2018). We should briefly point out that a  guidance conversation is not a  therapeutic situation, although many common features deal with relationships in the various meetings between someone who needs help and someone who wants to help. Nordanger promotes an interesting question by wondering why some therapists fail with most patients while others achieve success with almost everyone they get in contact with, despite their use of the  same therapy method. Nordanger (2018) believes this is largely about the  relationship’s power and emphasizes the  importance of establishing an effective relationship characterized by empathy, flexibility, cooperation, and understanding. Danish philosopher Knud Løgstup (1991) highlights the  caring perspective when describing offering something of one’s own to the other during a meeting and therefore having more or less of the other’s life in one’s hand; this again implies that, according to Løgstrup, every single meeting between individuals in this way represents valuable diversity. In a guidance situation or in a counselling interview, this perspective means 198 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 one has a  piece of the  other’s life in one’s hands; if one guides another, what one says and does will affect the other in some way. One important consideration is that the words one uses - both positive and negative - can be remembered for the rest of another’s life. Previous Research Previous research on effective guidance points to the  needs that characterize newly educated teachers as well as what characterizes effective guidance through the  planning and use of strategic tools (Lejonberg & Føinum, 2018). We nevertheless fail to pay adequate attention to the interpersonal perspective based on a mentor’s relationship competence and the direct meeting between teacher and student, which is in our context referred to as mentor and mentee. Experience suggests that effective tools and professional knowledge do not help if the mentor’s ability to establish a strong relationship is absent. Many have written about the relationship’s importance in the guidance context. Norwegian researchers Grete Haugan, Eva Aigeltinger, and Venke Sørlie (2012) published an article in Norwegian journal Sykepleien, in which they point out that students ‘...may have unrealistic notions that supervisors basically know what appropriate responsibility for the student is’ (p. 11). The  authors mention that responsibility also concerns one’s demonstration of confidence, trust, and effective relationships. A strong picture of what matters in a guidance situation is Lambert’s Pie (Asay & Lambert, 1999), which is a model based on research supporting that the  following factors affect guidance: ‘Technique and model factors 15%, expectancy and placebo effects 15%, The  therapeutic relationship 30%, Client variables and extra therapeutic events 40%’ (Asay & Lambert, 1999; Cooper, 2008, p. 56). Based on this model, we can determine that the relationship between the supervisor and road applicant in a counselling conversation possesses significant meaning and concerns expectations, past experiences in similar situations, and techniques or methodologies used while the two parties converse. In a  quantitative study conducted by Norwegian researcher Eli Lejonberg (2016), lector students’ assessments of guidance in practice were investigated. They evaluated their own teaching skills and experiences of trust during guidance situations, emphasizing the  importance of receiving clear feedback on the  guidance situations. In terms of relationships, the  findings revealed that the  lecturers’ ability to obtain their degrees was highlight dependent upon trust between them and their mentees. An interesting finding from the  survey indicated that the  students who considered their mentors’ competence to be high also had greater faith in their own abilities as teachers. Conversely, the study says little about what 199Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen. Technology and Relationships ... creates an effective mentor–mentee relationship and what can contribute towards creating trust and security in a  guidance situation. Through our research, we wish to highlight what students believe we, as mentors, should be aware of during guidance situations. Methodological Design Our research is based on a  qualitative study in which where we are interested in determining students’ thoughts about the factors at play and the  relationship’s importance in the  guidance context. We believe there exists an underlying hypothesis that claims the  relationship between the mentor and mentee is important. This study deals with action practice without the  practice itself (guidance) being the  subject of research; such cases can be classified as a  phenomenological approach (Creswell, 1998; Postholm, 2010, p.  17). Postholm refers to Moustaka (1994), who claims that ‘...the main purpose of phenomenological research is to understand meaningful, concrete relationships that are present in a  specific situation or a  specific context’ (cited in Postholm, 2010, p. 43). These observations cannot be made by the  researcher, yet the  experiences are not forgotten by those who have experienced them; thus, experiences may be obtained by talking to participants (Postholm, 2010, p. 43). In order to answer our research questions, we studied two groups of students, one of which constitutes first- year students (43) in teacher education and the other of which constitutes students enrolled in mentor education (31). To obtain data, we developed a  questionnaire with the  following variables: age, gender, knowledge, proximity/distance, relationship/relationship skills, and educational level. Furthermore, we discuss our data through a  socio-cultural perspective in light of the theory of relationships, recognition, and communication. Findings in the Data Material The data reveal that many interviewees believe knowing one’s mentor is important, while the extent to which one knows one’s mentor was not brought up as a concern. Specifically, 42 percent of the young participants (younger than 30 years) believe this factor is greatly important, while merely 4 percent of the older participants (older than 30 years) who have more experience believe this factor to be greatly significant. The mentor’s age is considered less important for one to experience effective guidance. Nearly 80 percent of all participants claimed that age has no or little significance, and computer material also demonstrates that the  mentor’s gender typically does not affect the  counselling situation in a  positive or negative way. Among the  younger students, however, 200 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 55 percent believe gender can at times affect how the mentee experiences guidance, although this variable’s significance was not elaborated upon. The mentor’s education level may affect the guidance situation’s yield. For this variable, 46 percent of participants claimed that education is quite significant, while 35 percent believe education is only somewhat significant. Interestingly, 40 percent of those who believe education is quite significant include students younger than age 30, while 20 percent of those in this group believe education is somewhat significant. Among the most experienced students, none believe the mentor’s education level is greatly important regarding his/her supervision, but most agree that education level has some significance. When it comes to questions about guidance and whether or not a  conversation is affected by the  mentor–mentee relationship, the participants’ responses were divided between somewhat significant and greatly significant; their responses are italicized in the  text below. Of all respondents, 58 percent answered that the  relationship was of great importance, while 40 percent responded that the  relationship had some significance. No participants believe the  relationship does not matter at all, but one respondent believes the  relationship holds little significance. Herein, a  significant correspondence thus exists between what the  young students believe and what the older students with more experience believe. If we consider this in light of the  mentor’s possession of relationship competence, 56 percent perceive this variable as very important, while 40 percent perceive it as somewhat important. A total of 60 percent claimed it is greatly important that the  mentor establish an effective relationship during the first meeting with his/her mentee, while no respondents believe this variable is entirely unimportant. In total, 71 percent of the informants believe it is somewhat important that the  mentor balance between proximity and distance during a  manual call, while 26 percent believe this variable to be very important and none believe it to be entirely unimportant. In the  survey, no guidelines were established regarding what the  informants should understand about proximity and distance; rather, they interpreted their beliefs based of their own standpoints and professional knowledge. In the  questionnaire’s open box concerning what they believe distinguishes an effective relationship and what constitutes relationship competence, about half of the young participants responded that security, the mentor shows respect for the mentee, and the mentor has an understanding of what the mentee is talking about are important factors. Several students mentioned being shown trust as a significant factor in the guidance context, while other dimensions mentioned by several of the oldest respondents in this same area include the  importance of openness and honesty as well as 201Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen. Technology and Relationships ... mutual respect. These participants believe it is correlated with the mentor’s allotment of sufficient time and possession of a sincere desire to want to help the other. In this context, the participants also mentioned that clarification regarding the  actual guidance situation’s expectations lays a  strong foundation for one who is seeking such an effective relationship. Many students highlight the importance of recognition in that the mentor should be supportive and the mentee must be allowed to make mistakes. The mentor must show understanding and see the individual’s needs. In situations wherein road searches are unsafe, the mentor must show empathy and show interest in the  individual’s needs. In addition, the  mentor must be gentle, attentive, sociable, caring, honest, sincere, committed, and must combine the academic and the social. These qualities are expressed through a dialogic communication. The participants highlighted body language as essential in communication in that smiling and nodding along during conversation should be included in the feedback. Several students highlighted the mentor’s ability to listen and have a sense of humour, while many others mentioned that the mentor must maintain eye contact and use the  student’s name. One participant reported that the  guidance situation should be perceived as equitable even if it is asymmetric. Several informants claimed that the mentor and mentee must be active, and the students hold the clear expectation that the mentor should be willing to teach and guide the mentee in a positive direction. The mentor’s feedback must be characterized by confidence, trust, and the  affordance of mistakes. Several students mentioned that the  mentor must be willing to help, and by extension, several students believe there must be mutual respect and the mentee must experience recognition. Students in both groups highlighted the  importance of showing sincere interest expressed through looks, acknowledging nodding and questioning on the  part of the  mentor. One participant mentioned that it is greatly important for the mentee to be recognized as a  person, while several mentioned generosity as an element that should characterize the  guidance situation while simultaneously holding the  expectation of receiving from the  mentor a  combination of academic and social knowledge. Discussion Discoveries and Challenges of Guidance Our survey confirms that relationships and relationship building are greatly significant regarding one’s experience of effective guidance. For direct questions, as many as 58 percent of the  respondents believe an effective relationship is greatly important, while 34 percent believe such a  relationship is somewhat important. This result closely aligns with 202 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  theory we highlighted earlier on that indicates relationships are important. The  knowledge also provides a  starting point for considering it important that relationship competence be included in the  guidance context in both the teacher education programs and the guidance education programs. This consideration indicates that both mentors and students should know how to build effective relationships and how relationship competence can be practiced. A  considerable amount of research (e.g., Hattie, 2017; Drugli, 2013; Nordahl, 2002) highlights the  importance of relationships between teachers and pupils, which is a  relationship additionally highlighted by the majority of students in our data. Elements of importance in building relationships were also highlighted, such as mutual respect, trust, openness, honesty, and an appreciative attitude. Our results demonstrate that certain challenges are presented to students when they are expected to experience these variables exclusively through digital guidance, although Lambeir (2004) argues that ICT offers opportunities for ‘educational dialogue’. Although such a  dialogue may be held, much of what is valid in the relationship and important in the guidance context are nevertheless marginally present. Schibbye (2004) claims that recognition is something you have to develop, as an attitude, throughout the  whole life. In this vein, what then happens when two mentors use the  same words and have positive body language but are experienced differently by those who are guided? Killingmo (1998) touches upon this circumstance by focusing on what the  mentor and mentee each bring into the  relationship—be that experiences from previous guidance situations or simply the  expectations of what benefit such situations should contribute, which is perhaps a consideration we might learn during our dealings with students. We must clarify what expectations both students and mentors hold for the guidance context, and these expectations can be clarified along different levels: on one hand, the expectation of a mentor’s help in solving a task, while on the other hand, the expectation that one will become a safer student who supports one’s views. The  guidance situation’s function is, among other things, to stimulate a  student’s learning (Løw, 2009), and the  mentor– mentee relationship can be decisive for the amount of guidance provided to the mentee. Nordanger (2018) discusses the meaning of force and points to the importance of establishing an effective relationship characterized by empathy, flexibility, cooperation, and understanding. In total, 95 percent of the young students believe knowing their mentor is greatly important. In addition, many wrote in their commentaries that security, trust, and being seen and listened to are essential features of an effective relationship. Students at the  primary and lower secondary levels often head straight into upper secondary education and into an 203Elin Birkeland Markestad, Bjørg Herberg Gloppen. Technology and Relationships ... academic environment. They experience an academic tradition in which they must argue their views and opinions, are required to critically reflect their research-based knowledge, and must make their assertions based on research from the field. It is essential that the mentor be confident in the role if one is to meet the student where he/she currently stands and not where he/she wishes to be. Schibbye (2004) argues for a  subject–subject relationship in the  guiding context, meaning the  mentee should be met with an open-minded attitude, such as ‘I wonder what you are thinking about’, rather than a subject–object attitude, such as ‘you must admit that what was not so wise’, or a similar attitude in which the mentor points out when the mentee acts or says something against the mentor’s expectations. On one hand, defining an action or perspective in this way is characterized by Schibbye (2004) as relational abuse; on the other hand, a  young student may expect specific advice from his/her mentor, who possesses knowledge of a  particular situation from teachers practice. In such situations, it is also essential that the mentor and mentee discuss what guidance actually constitutes in order to help the counsellor find the way on his/her own. This point implies that we, as mentors, should be cautious when giving advice, but on the  other hand, mentees may themselves, request advice from their mentors. Several informants in our study express that an effective relationship is characterized by dialogue, active communication, considerable involvement and a  body language that reflects positive attitude. Through mentors implementation of open-ended questions the mentee may for example reflect upon whether the solution or method was effective or ineffective, as well as what might be handled differently in a similar future situation. Rogers (1957) supports that we should acknowledge what the other individual in the  conversation offers by expressing respect and accepting. This process is not always necessarily easy because the  mentor brings his knowledge and cultural landscape into the guidance situation, while the mentee might bring an opposing perspective. Consciously or unconsciously, the  mentor is characterized by his past experiences and ideas and who he/she is as a human being. According to Rogers (1957), it is important that the mentor exhibit his/her unconditionally positive consideration by setting aside his/ her own thoughts and experiences and having the  mentee fully in focus. On one hand when the mentor meets his/her mentee, he/she will establish given frameworks and guidelines, while on the  other hand, the  meeting will be characterized by the  values and attitudes from both parts. This shows some of the  complexity in guidance, and we cannot exclude the interpersonal perspective, which Nordanger (2018) believes may be of absolute importance for mentors to succeed as ‘helpers’ and contribute to their mentees’ continued learning. A key question is therefore whether or 204 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 not technology can sufficiently safeguard the guidance. As researchers we are sceptical about technology`s effectiveness, yet at the same time believe it is important to meet today’s young people in their arenas and implement tools that may ensure we reach as many learners as possible. Guidance in Practice A central element for those who are engaged in teacher education— whether that be basic or higher education—is that we meet our students with the  knowledge of the  importance of the  relationships. Perhaps new students must actually learn to receive guidance, and the  answers the ‘freshest’ students give may indicate that they are much more concerned with security, honesty, and patience than are their older counterparts. If we are to succeed in strengthening students’ self-experiences, guidance situations must be characterized by recognition. Rogers (1957) asserts that recognition and acceptance are some of the most fundamental in the face of the other. It is evident from our data that a reputable and understanding mentor is one variable that students consider in the  description of an effective relationship. Perhaps not so surprising but nevertheless no less important is our observation that the  recognition and establishment of positive self-experiences are prerequisites for building effective guidance situations. Listening both verbally and non-verbally to mentees by nodding or using small words was emphasized as important by several informants in our study. The mentor’s attention directed towards the mentee by actively listening facilitates the  latter’s experience of being seen and cared about, and thus a  mentor being genuinely present for his/her mentee during a meeting is therefore greatly important for the mentee’s positive experience while seeking help. In addition to listening, it is important that the mentor ask thoughtful questions that make the mentee think, reflect and go ahead. The  mentor role’s complexity requires that one balance many thoughts at one time, especially while one is busy providing professional guidance in teacher education. In the  future, for our part, balancing analogue and digital meetings will ensure the best possible growth and development for our future generation of teachers. References Asay, T. P., & Lambert, M. J. (1999). The  empirical case for the  common factors in therapy: Quantitative findings. In M. Hubble, B. L. Duncan, & S. D. Miller (Eds.), The heart and soul of change: What works in therapy (pp. 351–357). Washington, DC, US: The American Psychological Association.  Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind. New York, NY, US: Ballantine. Butterworth, T., & Faugier, J. (1998). Clinical supervision and mentorship in nursing. 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Comprehensive counseling processes, relationship dynamics, growth, development and diversity) (pp. 145–164). Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget. Thorne, B. (2003). Carl Rogers (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. Tveiten, S. (2013). Guidance – More than words. Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget. Ulleberg. I. (2014). Communication in guidance. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget. 207Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 BLOCKCHAIN ARHITECTURE IN SMART PEDAGOGY Andis Āriņš University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Blockchain architecture in Smart Pedagogy offers valuable social propositions like trust, identity, transparency, immutability, smart contracts and disintermediation. There are multiple practices how to record learners’ achievements and present learning transcripts where the  most common practices are university issued diplomas and vendor issued certificates. There are social networks which allow users to publish their learning achievements for possible stakeholders; however, the  common problem is to verify if published diplomas and certificates are valid. This study experiments with lifelong learning transcript called knowledge passport in blockchain architecture. The proposed scenario allows learners to publish evidence of their learning achievements in desired formats connected with blockchain network for instant authenticity verification. The  experimental network consists of three nodes where one is located in Latvia, the second – in the USA, and the  third – in Asia. Based on the proposed implementation, such approach much better validates learning evidence, eliminates knowledge passport fraud and reduces organizational workload overhead for stakeholders involved in verification of documents certifying a person’s knowledge. Keywords: Blockchain architecture, modern education, Smart Pedagogy. Introduction Smart Pedagogy promotes synergy between pedagogy and technology in the context of modern education. Computing and digital developments has brought proposed learning strategies for promoting learning in technologically enriched environments. There are studies on smart education, even developments of smart education systems that improve learning experience and strives for extension of learning resource availability anywhere, anytime in an individually prepared manner. One of the Smart Pedagogy higher-level domains are aspects that need to be considered in pedagogical processes  – attitude, motivation, knowledge, diversity, assessment (Daniela & Lytras, Learning Strategies and Constructionism in Modern Education Settings, 2018). This study proposes blockchain https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.13 Andis Āriņš Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy 208 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 architecture as a decentralized database for storing learners’ assessment results as lifelong learning transcript called knowledge passport. There are two main benefits in blockchain-based learning achievement design – first, instant authenticity verification if published diplomas or certificates are valid, second  – adaptive learning customization for an individual learner based on previous assessment results. Blockchain technology in one of its first proposals was introduced by W. Stuart Haber and Scott Stornetta in 1991 as computationally practical solution for timestamping digital documents, so that they could not be backdated or tampered with (Haber & Stornetta, 1991). Their initial work for time stamping a digital document relied on a central authority that had to record the date and time a certain document was created and store a copy of it. However, there was a problem of trust where authors acknowledged that nothing in this scheme prevents the  time-stamping service from colluding with a client. As their original mission seemed impossible, they attempted to disprove the possibility of creating an immutable ledger but found an architecture that would not require a trusted central authority, so Stornetta and Haber succeeded in creating a distributed immutable ledger. In 2004, a computer scientist Hal Finney introduced a system called RPoW, Reusable Proof of Work (Finney, 2004), Its main idea proposes a prototype for digital cash. RPoW solved a well-known double-spending problem by keeping the ownership of tokens registered on a trusted server where users via internet could verify token correctness and integrity in real time. RPoW is an important milestone in the history of cryptocurrencies. In 2008, a paper for Bitcoin proposal was published – so far the most popular blockchain-based innovation called the first electronic cash system or digital currency (Nakamoto, 2008). Bitcoin is based on RPoW initial work, and it works as a decentralized peer-to-peer protocol for tracking and verifying transactions. Satoshi Nakamoto, the  name under which Bitcoin article was published, is a pseudonym, and the  real author or groups of authors are still unknown. It is interesting that Hal Finney participated as a receiver in the very first bitcoin transaction where he received 50 blocks from Satoshi Nakamoto, and so far he is the  only one who has received bitcoin blocks from Satoshi Nakamoto (Bitcoin Transactions, 2019). Hal Finney has denied being Satoshi Nakamoto himself. Digital currencies are only one of the cases when blockchain architec- ture is used. Blockchain is an incorruptible digital ledger of economic transactions that can be prepared to store not just digital currency transactions but virtually any valuable data stored in decentralized manner. If first blockchain developments were oriented to cryptocurrency, later developments focus also on smart contracts, and multi-field applications like healthcare, government services, science, culture and education. There are 209Andis Āriņš. Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy common blockchain implementation features shared by digital currencies which can be used also for storing other valuable data within environment where there is no central server or certification authority. Possible internet- based peer-to-peer network connections and digital signatures sign/encrypt transactions need to guarantee: 1) participant-consensus validated transactions; 2) transactions irreversibility where it is impossible to cancel a transaction; 3) counterfeiting where it is impossible to print digital money; 4) double-spending where it is impossible to spend the  same value multiple times. There is a published review that compares consensus protocols for block- chain architecture with respect to their fault models and resilience against attacks. The protocol comparison covers Hyperledger Fabric, Tendermint, Symbiont, R3 Corda, Iroha, Kadena, Chain, Quorum, MultiChain, Sawtooth Lake, Ripple, Stellar, and IOTA (Cachin & Vukolic, 2017). Online central- ized single authority systems, blockchain architecture confirm data validity based on consensus protocol that in this research is selected to be Quorum for majority of stakeholders to control data provisioning and sequence. Historically education systems use certificates, diplomas, transcripts, learning records or any other type of assessment evidence documents mostly in paper format to confirm learning and its results. Such learning evidence documents in real life follow both academic (where final awards may contain degrees) or specific skills-oriented commercial training where final awards may contain specific titles like a certified professional. Learning evidence documents include important data blocks like the issuer, date of issue, validity, signing person, learner’s name/surname and qualification degree or title. There are no common standards for learning evidence documents, so each academic or commercial learning organization can design its own document version. It is possible to implement and use some security mechanisms as holograms (in paper documents they are rarely used because of more complex printing and additional costs). In comparison, paper money has much better anti-fraud mechanisms. From third party perspective, it is challenging to verify such learning evidence documents, as it requires individual efforts to identify and contact the  issuer to confirm validity of learning evidence document. University diploma validity research (Contreras & Gollin, 2010) studies fake diploma problem. In modern education systems, digitally signed certificates replace paper learning evidence documents. For the learner, it is an advantage but for the  issuer such solutions rise responsibility to secure the  database and the signing key. In addition, such issuers might consider storing publicly accessible database for verification purposes (MikroTik, 2019) as digital learning certificates not only expire but also the  issuer can revoke them. 210 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 This study supplements the  existing blockchain development in modern education and experiments with a dedicated blockchain network connected via internet protocol with 3 blockchain nodes based in three different continents. The  main idea of this study is to experiment with learners’ assessment results as a lifelong learning transcript called knowledge passport in secure, independent, quorum supported blockchain architecture. Although there are several proposals for digital proof of education certificates like unsecure simple PDF certificates, digitally signed PDF certificates or even digital currency-based (Bitcoin, Ethereum) proposals, none of them is accepted as general practice for presenting digital proof of learning evidence. This study is different from previously digital currency-based proposals, as it is using different, independent architecture controlled by education stakeholders with no need to pay settlements to digital currency miners for block confirmation. Each of blockchain architecture implementation domains has its own specifics that requires research and opportunities for innovators. Available blockchain- based ideas and appropriate studies for education domain are reviewed in the  following section. The  experimental setup description follows in the  third section of this study. Experimentation results are presented in the  fourth chapter of this paper, and the  conclusion and future research proposals close this study. Related research and developments As of June 2019, there are dozens of universities offering studies of blockchains, cryptocurrencies, distributed consensus, smart contracts and applications. For example, University of California At Berkeley, Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, IT University of Copenhagen and University of Nicosia  – Cyprus offering MSc Degree in Digital Currency (UNIC, 2019). Students of University of Nicosia who successfully qualify will receive their academic certificates whose authenticity can be verified through the Bitcoin blockchain as presented in Fig. 1 (Nicosia, 2019). Since July 2017, as part of its ongoing innovation around blockchain, the  SAP innovation Center Network have introduced TrueRec - a secure and trusted digital wallet for storing professional and academic credentials powered by blockchain. These credentials could include anything from IDs, such as passport, driver’s license, or voter ID, to education credentials like university degrees and employment certificates. TrueRec is powered by Ethereum, an open-source, public, blockchain-based distributed computing platform that features smart contract (scripting) functionality that facilitates online contractual agreements (SAP News Center, 2019). 211Andis Āriņš. Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy Figure 1. Nicosia MSc academic degree certificate verification Since October 2016, Blockcerts proposal for open standard for creating, issuing, viewing, and verifying blockchain-based certificates contributes to the  prototype developed by MIT Media Lab and Learning Machine initiative group. Blockcerts use Bitcoin blockchain as the provider of trust, and credentials are tamper-resistant and verifiable. Blockcerts can be used in the  context of academic, professional, and workforce credentialing. At its core, Blockcerts is open code software (Blockcerts, 2019). Blockcerts relies on Bitcoin complexity and immutability as important and careful consideration for long-term effects. Sample Blockcert digital certificate verification is presented in Fig. 2 (Learning Machine, 2019). Figure 2. Blockcert digital certificate verification 212 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Among recent studies focusing on blockchain, there is a notable initiative by Gräther et al. proposing Lifelong Learning Passport solution for education domain. In Gräthers study first, author describes the conceptual system overview and presents in detail the  platform implementation including management of certification authorities and certificates, smart contracts, as well as services for certifiers, learners and third parties, such as employers. Finally, author describes use-cases and first evaluation results gathered from end user tests with certifiers (Gräther, et al., 2018). Gräther platform is based on Ethereum contracts and is limited to OpenZeppelin approved smart contract templates Blockchain featuring Smart Pedagogy The core idea of smart pedagogy as technology-enhanced learning promotes meaningful usage of state-of-the-art technologies in transforming learning environments. Smart pedagogy can support educators in finding the  answers on how to support learning in the  transformed education process, how to incorporate technologies into learning to support the  development of metacognition, how to support knowledge building, how to support the  development of digital competences (Daniela, 2019). Novelty is not the  only common characteristic shared by blockchain and smart pedagogy. This study proposes blockchain architecture as technology- enhanced learning advancement for the following benefits: 1) Lifelong learning transcript called the  knowledge passport. There might be doubts because of privacy and other reasons regarding who and in what detail should be able to observe learners’ achievements and results. Most often a learner would share his/her final learning result evidence document with third parties. However, it can be beneficial both for the learner and educator to zoom in the learner’s assessment results on a subject or even topic level. Depending on the  learners and educator’s agreement, technically the  knowledge passport could contain results of all assessments ever taken by the learner. Blockchain architecture serves as a decentralized platform for storing hashed references to recorded learning results as stored in a distributed secure network that does not allow data tampering. For example, if the learner demonstrated poor results on a topic and later repeated the test with better results, the knowledge passport would store both the  old and the  new result. Having access to a trusted learner’s lifelong knowledge passport, educators could prepare a more individualized learning content and approach. The  learner’s knowledge passport provides the ability to predict the best teaching approach and select the right tasks in the right order. Emphasis on 213Andis Āriņš. Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy the  importance of a comprehensive view from strategic perspective on what and how learners will gain knowledge now makes it possible to evaluate progression and results between short-term gains in understanding and longer-term education goals. The proposed smart pedagogy blockchain is distributed between multiple education organizations, and it shares a single knowledge passport of the learner. Usually when an individual enters an education institution, there is a new, empty record to store the learner’s assessment success. Upon an agreement between the  learner and the  education organization, all learning data would be available to the educator resulting in much more individualized learning content and approach. From scientific perspective, the  knowledge passport not only boosts the  learner’s learning abilities but its analysis reveals more comprehensive trends about the  learner, educator and the  education organization. Such analysis based on empirical data would help to ask and answer new research questions. 2) Validation of learning result certificates. Like in the proposals discussed in the  related research section of this paper, validity of learning evidence documents can be organized in blockchain architecture in multiple ways. If the documents reviewed stored validation data in cryptocurrency blockchains in order to meet smart pedagogy flexibility requirements, the  author of this article proposes to build independent blockchain network shared among education institutions capable of smart pedagogy. Using independent blockchain designed primarily for education tracking purposes, allows learners, educators and education organizations to decide on the  desired formats and processes without cryptocurrency framework limitations. In the next section of this paper, three nodes of an experimental network in different continents are connected using internet protocol over public internet. A  notable part of national research and education organizations from Europe are connected to GÉANT network (GEANT, 2019). GEANT, the  Gigabit European Academic Network, is a panEuropean data and communication network for Europe’s education and research community. It is co-funded by education networks, European national research and the European Commission, and coordinated by a limited liability company DANTE. Across the European continent, the GEANT network provides research data communication, infrastructure and resources for telecommunication and information technology development. An organization connected to GEANT network, thanks to border gateway protocol on internet core smart pedagogy blockchain, would benefit from transit data flowing directly between interconnected education organizations. 214 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Experimental setup and data structure As in Fig.3, the experimental setup consists of three blockchain nodes located in Latvia, USA, and Singapore. All three nodes are logically fully meshed and physically connected via an internet protocol over public internet. If all nodes were connected in national academic institution networks with active GEANT connection, then blockchain data exchange would transit only GEANT network. Figure 3. Blockchain node location and interconnectivity All three blockchain nodes synchronize the blockchain database starting from genesis block followed by subsequent sequential blocks. The proposed architecture with three nodes is the  smallest setup to demonstrate a decentralized peer-to-peer system with no central authority figure and quorum consensus. Blockchain nodes are located in different continents to observe real-life experience in realistic network for future smart pedagogy applications. Each node represents education institution and can append learners’ achievements to blockchain as data in new blocks. After appending data to blockchain, it is not possible to delete or tamper with such data unless the whole blockchain is deleted. Depending on necessity, blockchain may contain not only academic or commercial final certificates issued at the end of learning process like degrees or professional titles but also more detailed assessment results on a subject or even topic level. Additional to digital certificate data, blockchain stores data creation timestamps. If the  learner completed any assessment for the  second time and results were published in blockchain, then all other nodes would have both the  previous and actual assessment values for the  same learner but with different timestamps. Considering future scaling, it is advised to store smart pedagogy centric data as links to education organization databases that get validated by corresponding hashes in blockchain network. However, it is possible to store smart pedagogy centric data also as raw data directly in blockchain for redundant storage on processing on other nodes. As in table 1, the  proposed blockchain database architecture contains five columns 215Andis Āriņš. Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy where data field carries information about education organization, such as the creator, learner’s profile, assessment type, result, timestamp. Table 1. Proposed blockchain structure index previousHash timestamp Smart Pedagogy data hash Index – integer, e.g. 1; previousHash and hash – double SHA256; timestamp – unix timestamp, e.g. 1536851684.824; data – varchar/string Figure 4 shows general overview how smart pedagogy blockchain meets stakeholder interests. The  learner demonstrates his/her gained knowledge through assessments. Recorded results for specific topics or subjects depending on an agreement between the  learner and educator may be published as hashed smart pedagogy centric data in blockchain. Educators can access the learner’s learning transcript and prepare appropriate methods and tasks to maximize the  learner’s learning abilities. When the  learner has passed all assessments, education organization publishes a hashed digital certificate in blockchain. Once the  digital certificate is published, the  learner can share a link to the  learning evidence to any third-party stakeholder who can directly validate the learners’ success. Figure 4. Smart Pedagogy blockchain stakeholders The experimental process was divided in two steps. First, independent blockchain setup with three nodes and hashed digital certificate exchange. The  main research question for the  first experimental step was to answer what is difference between an independent blockchain approach 216 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 compared to practice where certificate hashes are stored in blockchains of cryptocurrencies Bitcoin or Ethereum. As this proposed blockchain is designed only for processing smart pedagogy centric data, it has simpler and clearer database structure, and it performs better. During the  experimentation, three imaginary education organizations generated 100,000 digital certificates each resulting in 300,000 digital certificate entries. Such volume of blockchain entries was chosen for comparison with Bitcoin daily transaction count (Blockchain Charts, 2019). With a single server blockchain solution in each node, it took approximately 3 hours, where average block confirmation time was approximately 20s compared to average 12 minutes in Bitcoin network in corresponding timeframe on June 26, 2019. On the other hand, Bitcoin network has more than 500,000 unique addresses and higher mining difficulty (Blockchain Charts, 2019). To sum up, independent smart pedagogy centric blockchain brings better performance and flexibility but will need more nodes to increase consensus quorum and security guarantees. During the  second experiment, the  author generated and published 10,000 subjectbased assessment results on each blockchain node. Randomly generated data contained 100 educator id values and 1,000 learner id values on each node thus modeling a scenario where 1,000 learners in each educational organization get assessment in 10 subjects. Identification values of the  education organization, educator, learner and the  subject together with assessment result and timestamp were stored in a data field in blockchain. 30,000 generated entries were confirmed and distributed to all three nodes within 30 minutes. Now with available dataset, interested stakeholders can evaluate best students, best educators and analyze learners’ knowledge passports and develop technology-enhanced learning innovations from smart pedagogy perspective. Transparency of success of learners and educators may lead to better rivalry among education organizations. Results and conclusions On the  basis of experimentally collected evidence and dataset, the  author concludes that blockchain architecture can be beneficial for the smart pedagogy domain as perspective to develop technology-enhanced learning innovations that use learners’ lifelong knowledge passport. Although currently only minority of education organizations issue digital certificates instead of paper format learning evidence, author believes that in the  future digital certificates will gain popularity. Depending on the  choice of education institutions, digital certificates can be stored not only in cryptocurrency blockchains but also in specially designed blockchain 217Andis Āriņš. Blockchain Arhitecture in Smart Pedagogy for the education domain. The proposed blockchain architecture for smart pedagogy is in prototype state and for now can be used to demonstrate the  idea of blockchain contributing to smart pedagogy and being another step in development of infrastructure with innovative benefits. References (2019, 06). Retrieved from SAP News Center: https://news.sap.com/2017/07/ meet-truerec-by-sap-trusted-digital-credentials-powered-by-blockchain/ (2019). Retrieved from Blockchain Charts: https://www.blockchain.com/charts. Bitcoin Transactions. (2019, 06 30). Retrieved from https://www.blockchain.com/btc/ tx/f4184fc596403b9d638783cf57adfe4c75c605f6356fbc91338530e9831e9e16. Blockcerts. (2019, 06). The  Open Standard for Blockchain Credentials. Retrieved from https://www.blockcerts.org/. Cachin, C., & Vukolic, M. (2017). Blockchain Consensus Protocols in the Wild. Computer Science – Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing. Contreras, A., & Gollin, G. (2010). The Real and the Fake Degree and Diploma Mills. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning. Daniela, L. (2019). Didactics of Smart Pedagogy: Smart Pedagogy for Technology Enshanced Learning. Cham: Springer. Daniela, L., & Lytras, M. (2018). Learning Strategies and Constructionism in Modern Education Settings. IGI Global. Finney, H. (2004). RPOW – Reusable Proofs of Work. Retrieved from https:// nakamotoinstitute.org/rpow/. GEANT. (2019, 06). Retrieved from https://www.geant.org/ Gräther, W., Kolvenbach, S., Ruland, R., Schütte, J., Ferreira Torres, C., & Wendland, F. (2018). Blockchain for Education: Lifelong Learning Passport. European Society for Socially Embedded Technologies. Haber, S., & Stornetta, W. (1991). How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document. Learning Machine. (2019, 06). Retrieved from Certificates Verification: https://blockcerts. learningmachine.com/certificate/ab56912734bb5784bced00b7e0e82ac9. MikroTik. (2019, 06 28). Mikrotik Certificate search. Retrieved from https://mikrotik. com/certificateSearch. Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. Nicosia, U. O. (2019, 06). Retrieved from Academic Certificate Verification: http:// verify.unic.ac.cy/verify. OpenZeppelin. (2019, 06). Retrieved from https://openzeppelin.org/. Tapscott, D., & Tapscott, A. (2017). The  blockchain revolution and higher education. Educause Review. UNIC. (2019, 06). Retrieved from Masters in Digital Currency: https://www.unic.ac.cy/ blockchain/msc-digital-currency/. 218 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 AN APPLICATION OF THE MODERN TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS IN AN ORDER TO ENHANCE THE PROCESS OF DISTANCE LEARNING Jevgenija Dehtjare Hotel Management College, Latvia Jekaterina Korjuhina Hotel Management College, Latvia Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT An approach to the  development of modern process of distance learning in the  higher education requires application of modern tools and technologies. It is a  known fact that distance learning is mainly online and has become a synonym of a  technological progress and globalization development. However, a  long time experience of working with distance students and gained feedback during a communication process made it necessary to discuss a statement: modern distance and online education must become more communicative and flexible, ensuring fast connectivity, a  possibility to assess students’ needs and individual approach. The theoretical framework of the  article includes the  analysis of an increasing role of the communication process in the distance education. A method of application of learning solutions based on the  experience realms model in order to improve student’s retention for distance learning is considered as a  tool in an order to retain a  distant student. The study consists of the  introductory part, where main prerequisites for the  application of modern technological solutions in order to retain a student are given, and theoretical part where postulates of Experience Economy are analyzed and present researches related to the topic are over viewed. Methodological part is presented with an observation of existing communication tools for distance learning and methods of its application in order to retain students’ attention during the process of distance learning; conclusions where main findings are summarized and proposals of offered methods and technological solutions in order to retain a student for distance learning are given. Keywords: Distance Learning, Communication tools, Technological solutions. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.14 Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane An Application of ... 219Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. An Application of ... Introduction The world is experiencing a paradigm shift, and higher education is no stranger to it (Black, et al, 2019). Modern higher education establishments, especially private educations of the Baltic States are currently experiencing hard pressure from the open education market of the other members of the European Union on the one hand and repercussion of demographic and migration crisis on the other hand. For example, Hudenko (2019) mentions a survey, made by the University of Latvia where main category of those representatives of population of Latvia that had a desire to leave the country in the year 2016 consists of young people aged 18–24 (33% of participants of the  survey). Altogether Latvia was left by 67 thousands people during the years 2013–2017. Both Latvia and Lithuania each had lost among 20% of their population during the  years 2000–2017 (Hudenko, 2019). The disappearance of youngsters means consumer decrease for education market of the Baltic countries. Distance learning tools impressively contribute to the  competitiveness increase and horizon enlargement for Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) of the given region. Most of modern education establishments are equipped both with hardware and software to support the  process of distance learning. It is possible to study anytime and anywhere nowadays thanks to the dissemination of various online educational platforms, such as Moodle and others. However, the  authors’ long time experience of working with distance students and gained feedback during the communication process created a  necessity to discuss a  statement: modern distance and online education must become more communicative and flexible, ensuring fast connectivity, a  possibility to asses students’ needs and apply individual approach. A student presently located perhaps thousands kilometers away from his/her Alma mater should be especially encouraged for learning and should constantly be supported. That is why not only the  contents of distantly offered study courses should be seriously examined, but the  common approach of study subjects delivery  – how easy it is to accomplish tasks, to obtain theoretical materials as well as how fast, smooth and clear the communication process is performed, with three sides being involved – a HEI, playing a moderator and a controller’s role, a tutor and a student. Aim of the study The object of the  research are 96 higher education institutions of the  Baltic States, mostly focused on provision of social sciences such as 220 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Business Administration, Tourism etc. (Dehtjare, 2019, p.113). The subject of the  research is retention of distance learning students and according application of technological solutions in order to keep students satisfied with the study process and communication. Research problem is determined with present worsening of demographic conditions of the  Baltic States and existing desire of local targeted auditorium of HEIs to leave the  region. Thus, competitiveness within the  HEIs of the  region increases and dissemination of such a  service as distance learning both for local and overseas students could become a significant competitive advantage. However, it is never enough to launch a product (or service) on a market, a communication has to be qualitative and a service provider (here: HEI) should keep its consumer (here: student) satisfied during all period of consumption (here: distance learning process). That is why a hypothesis of the research should be formulated as follows: distance learning is a  product that could contribute to the  increase of competitiveness and there should be applied most of modern technological solutions in order to keep the  consumers (students) retained within the process of product consumption. Merriam-Webster dictionary (2018) gives following definition of distance learning: “a method of study where teachers and students do not meet in a classroom but use the Internet, e-mail, mail, etc., to have classes” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2018). Also, Cambridge Learner`s Dictionary (2018) defines the  same process as “a way of studying, especially for a degree, where you study mostly at home, receiving and sending off work by post or over the  internet” (Cambridge Learner`s Dictionary, 2018). Learning by post being already some kind of a  relic of the  past, both dictionaries agree in defining distance learning process as a process where both participants are separated from each other. As it is stated above, the  depressive stagnating situation among the  HEIs of the  Baltic States who had faced both open EU educative market competitive advantages and according threats altogether with speedily decreasing population puts these HEIs into tough surviving position. Being currently unable to ensure increase of the domestic students due to the lack of their presence in the  region, the HEIs are especially interested in expanding their areas of functioning. Distance or online (most often synonymous nowadays) learning provides great possibility for this purpose. The authors suppose postulates of Experience Economy model, stated by Pine J. and Gilmore J. (as cited in Bornschlegl & Cashman, 2018, p.62) could be applied also as a  tool to retain students’ attention during their participation in a process of distance learning. With regards to education process, the  selling of education products (here distance learning of study courses, services offered for sale) should be enriched with selling experience. While a customer uses 221Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. An Application of ... a product, an experience occurs. Tangible products and intangible services are still external to the buyer; for all that the experience is deeply personal. There are no two people with the same experience of equal product usage as their motivation is individual and not only extrinsic but intrinsic. One way to think about experience is across two dimensions. The first dimension corresponds to customer participation. Formal, obsolete approach for distance learning means very little involvement of both students’ and tutor’s in the process of distance learning and communication related. Active approach of communication and according rise of experience is observed when most of communication tools are used during the distance learning process and students feel themselves highly involved and supported both by their tutor and a HEI. The kind of experience most people think of as entertainment, applied in education process, tends to be that in which customers (here: students) participate more passively then actively (for example watching live or recorded stream of in-class lecture), their connection with the event (here: lecture material to be achieved) is more likely on of absorption than of immersion. Educational events, such as attending a virtual webinar, tends to involve more active participation, yet students are rather outside the  event than are immersed into the action. Escapist experience can teach just as well as educational events, or amuse just as well as entertainment, but they involve greater students’ immersion. Recorded and submitted acting in a play with an aim to simulate application of personal selling skills and then followed online discussion with a tutor and perhaps with other students in a virtual conference mode, for example, involves both active participation and immersion in the experience. However, if the student’s active participation in the  process of distance learning is minimized, an escapist event becomes an experience of the  fourth kind—the aesthetic. Here customers or students in our case are immersed in an activity or environment, but they themselves have little or no effect on it like watching recorded video lessons. Experience, similar to goods and services should meet a  need of a  customer. Still, experience is born in a  process that requires direct buyer’s involvement, absorption of the running process or deep immersive dive into it. The model of Experience Economy formulated by Pine and Gilmore (as cited in Bornschlegl & Cashman, 2018, p. 63) describes buyer’s involvement into the  process of products or service consumption as an active or passive participation within four areas (realms) of an experience. Four areas of buyer participation and involvement aspects, such as education, entertainment, esthetic and escapist are considered to be located in between horizontal axis (where absorptive involvement is on top and immersive is below) and vertical axis (with passive participation on the left and active participation on the right). 222 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Bornschlegl & Cashman (2018), scientists from James Cook University, Australia, reported about the results of a research, which aim was to study if there is a  correlation between students’ satisfaction with a  process of distance learning and their retention in study process, simple mediation model being applied. They stated: The distance student experience and the  students’ satisfaction with crucial program factors were strongly indirectly related to the  students’ intention to persist through the  students’ overall satisfaction. The results indicate that designers of tertiary distance courses should consider program factors and the characteristics of the distance student experience to ensure high levels of student satisfaction and to increase the students’ intention to persist (Bornschlegl & Cashman, 2018, p. 73). Analyzing the  Four Realms model, Bornschlegl & Cashman (2018) suppose: The Experience Economy model could make important contributions to the  understanding of distance student retention. It could clarify the relationship between program factors, satisfaction and retention taking motivational theories into consideration. The educational literature contains little research that is directly analogous to Pine and Gilmore’s. <…> More broadly, the  literature has not considered the student experience as a whole within the student retention process. These realms seem, however, important for their motivational value (Bornschlegl & Cashman, 2018, p. 62–63). Materials and Methods A method of application of learning solutions based on the experience realms model was offered by the  authors in order to improve students’ retention for distance learning, based on Pine and Gilmore’s Four Realms Experience model (as cited in Bornschlegl & Cashman, 2018, p.63) and own practical experience with online tutoring and thanks to the introduction of modern technological solutions into the  existing distance study processes of their referred HEIs altogether with theoretical review of online sources and existing scientific publications. Main idea of the  method is that during the  process of distance and/ or online learning every experience realm must be fully involved to keep maximum of students’ attention. The method includes application of learning solutions – for distance learning process. The authors suppose the application of a model of Four Experience (4Es) realms application for distance learning will lead both to students’ retention and respectively to competency increase for related HEIs. 223Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. An Application of ... Table 1. A Method of Application of Learning Solutions – Based on the Experience Realms Model in Order to Improve Students Retention for Distance Learning (offered by authors) Experience Realms Realm/ Involvement role Educational Entertainment Aesthetic Escapist Absorption/ Active Remote familiarization with educational materials and assignments Absorption/ Passive Watching of uploaded/sent educational videos, broadcast/ recorded webinars Immersion/ Passive Design of a website, online platform, study materials, presentations, easiness of usage Immersion/ Active Virtual reality, augmented reality, role plays, quests, online games, online conferences, chat bots, messenger, social networks Communication approach (tutor/student/ HEI) Formal Formal Formal Formal and informal Remote familiarization with educational materials and subsequent writing performance of study assignments is traditionally disseminated method and a  trustful way to ensure a  student with information of an offered study course, its content and objectives. Such a process of obtaining information as reading is ensured with little from both sides communication 224 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and sometimes even lower ability to interest a  remote student, however, the  absorption is high as obtained competence should be proved by suggested tasks to be accomplished afterwards. Entertainment is an important component used in order to retain student’s attention and to keep satisfaction. Videos related to topicality of studies, recorded live lectures and webinars keep attention, however, a remote student still plays passive role during watching. Communication process plays an important role in the distance learning, application of as many as possible communication solutions and tools is also crucial in retaining a student. Communication ensures active student’s involvement and according immersion into the  study process altogether with continuous satisfaction and feeling of a support both from a tutor and from HEI in general. Clemons (2005) outlines: “online educators navigate technology challenges that traditional classroom teachers rarely do. However, their goal of enhancing student learning through an enriched environment is the same” (Clemons, 2005, p.7). Solutions offered for the  application in order to retain students during their process of distance learning are overlooked in Figure 1. There is a  necessity to ensure multiple ways of communication for three participants of the process, a  tutor, a  student, a moderator (intermediate, study department representative of HEI). The role of the moderator and his/her contribution to the communication process shouldn’t be underestimated. Some education establishments and online platforms often skip moderating action or consider it less significant, however, there is still a  necessity to ensure such a  position. A  qualified moderator of online study process is able to: • control learning, provide explanations on operation functions, communicate with participants regarding their study debts, monitor those with frozen activity, remind and make overall statistical monitoring of student activity with according conclusions and process improvement suggestions; • communicate with tutors, provide explanations on operation functions for them, control tutors activity, remind and make overall statistical monitoring of tutors’ activity with according conclusions and process improvement suggestions; • download study materials into education platform or help tutors to ensure this action, provide trainings for tutors how to operate within the system; • communicate with study department to ensure systematical notification about obtained evaluations for study courses passed by students; 225Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. An Application of ... • monitor existing contents of study courses downloaded to the platform, control its quality, contact tutors, remind them to make updates of contents; • add supporting materials; • communicate with responsible IT specialists and network administrators to ensure stable online platform function. The approach to modern distance learning should combine both formal and informal communication. Formal communication includes online learning with a help of educative platform, use of a website, printed manuals etc. Informal communication ensures smoother and faster interaction and helps to customize the  process. Messengers, social networks could be used as the tools of informal communication altogether with the standard communication devices and tools. In accordance with the  Four Realms model, informal communication tools help to retain customer’s (here  – student’s) attention, having both absorptive (requires intrinsic motivation to obtain knowledge) and immersive (requires own physical action and presence, even a virtual one) importance. The following tools of formal and informal communication for distance learning to be applied in order to retain a student can be offered: • Online educative (e-learning) platforms, such as Moodle, Bamboohr, E-learning Platform and others (GetApp, 2018). An online learning platform  is an integrated set of interactive online services that provide trainers, learners, and others involved in education with information, tools and resources to support and enhance education delivery and management (SAP Litmos, 2018). Moodle cloud allows you to access all of special applications and services from anywhere, anytime via the internet, because the information stored on the  main server (the company service provider) (Basha et al., 2019, p.  40). Among the  advantages of educative platforms there are: 24/7 accessibility worldwide, both tutors and students activity monitoring, ease of usage, update flexibility. However, there are several disadvantages that make this study process rather formal, such as often delay in communication between tutors, students and moderators, complicated operation, formal approach of creation of study materials due to which distance students often complain to limited information amount received comparing to full time students. There is a possibility to ensure direct chat communication between tutors and students but it usually accompanies with significant delay with answers. It is necessary to emphasize that modern educative platforms have to include mobile versions due to nowadays market requirements. Still not many of them offer such a  solution. Other trend is to use elements of Augmented Reality (AR) in a process of 226 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 distance learning. Zumoko (2018) supposes, that elements of AR in education and according learning solutions help students to “visualize complex and abstract data to achieve deeper understanding and increase knowledge retention” (Zumoko, 2018, para. 2). • Website of education establishment that can be used as a  support of educative platform, containing uploaded resources, links to study materials etc. It is possible to ensure two-way communication thanks to chat bots; however, it is not a common thing for education establishments, such as colleges and universities. Still implementation of a chat bot can help to customize communication process between a  student or an applicant and education establishment, to make it smoother and more pleasant. During the  research 96  websites- of the  universities of the  Baltic States were investigated by the  corresponding author (Dehtjare, 2019, p.  113), and it was a  problem sometimes to find a  necessary information about study programs or where to find methodical materials etc. Chat bots can simplify process of obtaining information at once; • Email communication is a good helper in ensuring communication process, though not the  best one. Initially, “the use of emails has revolutionized the  way teachers communicate with their students” (Gonsalez, 2010, p. 2). The advantages of email communication for study process are its speed, accessibility, mobility and a possibility to forward attached materials. The disadvantages are possible delays and even lost in spam folders for group sending and often exclusion of study process moderator away from the  communication process between a tutor and a student; • Phone and internet voice call providers (such as Skype etc.) are long time known tools to ensure smooth and personalized distance learning process. This function is often supported by video broadcasting. While study materials available for obtaining by e-learning platforms are a useful but still formal tool, broadcasting communication is a  perfect way to ensure personalized approach. A student feels more valued and supported when listens to a voice of his tutor and sees video with him, this, indeed, is much more appreciated and feedback is almost guaranteed. Moreover, the  broadcast translation can be recorded and later downloaded to e-learning platform as a  supported material. It can become later available for downloading as a promotion element for prospects and interested students, or even sold as a separate audio or video study course. Thanks to globalization aspect of modern technologies, video conferences, webinars can be broadcast, recorded and disseminated throughout the  world. For example, Tajbiul (2018) outlined that 227Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. An Application of ... “education in distance mode by broadcasting media is still most convenient and cost effective to expand and ensure education for all” (Tajbiul, 2018, p. 1); Figure 1. Communication Process Solutions for Distance Learning (designed by authors) • Messengers, such as WhatsApp, Telegram and others are modern, powerful and often underestimated personalized communication tools. The advantages of these tools are their high personalization, possibility to organize and manage group chats, option to share files, option to make live broadcasting and record it, an excellent opportunity to contact a  student who doesn’t show any signs of activity for a while anytime and anywhere, being sure he/she has got the  information as a delivery report is seen immediately. It is also a perfect tool to give to a distant student a sense of appreciation and support by an education establishment. These tools are supported by mobile devices. As stated by Pucciarelli & Cantoni- (2012), p. 5, “mobile devices may be a  convenient source of information and tool for communication in order to support formal and informal learning”. • Social networks (Facebook etc.). It’s a  known fact the  Facebook Empire has grown from an internal network of Harvard College (Brandwatch, 2019). It is hard to underestimate its meaning in the modern life and communication process. However, its application for distance learning is very little appreciated by the  education establishments. Facebook groups, pages with link to information, 228 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 possibility to share information within a click, chats, interactivity – these advantages of social network must be fully used by a university or a college; • Cloud services. The cloud promotes more efficient use of IT resources, such as a reduction in costs, human resource savings. Cloud services can contribute to creation of common data base of several establishments, especially if double or joint diploma programs are provided. These technologies could be used in appliance with other formal communication tools; • Kits of printed information. Even despite the  fact that nowadays technologies contribute to fully automatized and online effectuated study process development, still getting of printed information materials (prospects, booklets, reminders, questionnaires, test books, manuals) makes a distant student feel supported. Sometimes this old school tool can contribute to the communication process as well; • Blockchain technology. Modern scientists observe many possibilities of block chain technology in the process of education. It should be especially evaluated as a  useful tool in a  distance education as it enlarges many capabilities at once. For example, digital diplomas could be issued thanks to this technology altogether with a “digital badge”, a summary of all courses and modules obtained throughout lifelong learning process. This virtual badge could be shared online and be used as a  confirmation of statuses for human resource representatives and other interested persons. The blockchain ledger can match all kinds of educational information with the  user’s unique ID. It includes learning behavior in class, micro academic project experience, and macro educational background, etc. (Chen, Xu & Lu, 2018). As formulated by Sharples (2018), the education approach in the Mobile Age should be re-shaped taking into consideration both conversational and technological factors. Regarding the  nowadays education, it removes the  solid ground of classroom instruction, and of education as the transmission or construction of knowledge within the constraints set by a curriculum, and replaces it with a cybernetic process of learning through continual negotiation and exploration. This can be seen as a challenge to formal schooling, to the autonomy of the classroom and to the curriculum as the means to teach the knowledge and skills needed for adulthood. But it could also be an opportunity for technology to bridge the gulf between formal and experiential learning (Sharples, 2018, p. 8). 229Jevgenija Dehtjare, Jekaterina Korjuhina, Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. An Application of ... Results The research findings show: 1. Demographic decrease and open market of education means high competitiveness for the HEIs of the Baltic States. 2. Distance education tools impressively contribute to the  market share increase and horizon enlargement for HEIs of the given region. 3. Distance learning must become more communicative and flexible, ensuring fast connectivity, individual approach and a  possibility to asses student’s needs. 4. The selling of education services should be enriched with selling experience. 5. A  method of Four Experience realms application solutions for distance learning has been designed by the  authors. 6. The approach to modern distance learning should combine both formal and informal communication. 7. Technological solutions to ensure both formal and informal communication process for distance learning have been offered by the  authors. 8. Offered methods and solutions should contribute both to students’ retention and their overall satisfaction with distance learning process that will lead to competitiveness increase of the related HEIs. Conclusions The development of the  Internet and communication technology has revolutionary changed the education contents and methods. Due to current demographic decrease in the  Baltic States together with open education market of the EU, the HEIs of the mentioned region are experiencing high competitiveness pressure. Dissemination of distance learning could become a  key to market share expansion for offered educational services and a tool to competitiveness increase. However, the efforts to retain a student within a process of distance learning should be maximized. To achieve this, the  authors of the  research propose their recommendations for student’s retention during distance learning process, based both on application of Four Realms of Experience model together with formal and informal communication approaches and modern technological solutions. References Basha, A., Abdulreda, A. & Hatem, H. (2019). Investing Social Media to Offer and Eclectic of Information: Moodle Cloud. IRJCS: International Research Journal of Computer Science, Volume VI, 38–46. doi:10.26562/IRJCS.2019.MRCS10080. Black, D., Bissessar, C. & Boolaky, M. (2019). Online Education as an Opportunity Equalizer: The Changing Canvas of Online Education. Interchange 50(3), 423–443. doi:10.1007/s10780-019-09358-0. 230 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Bornschlegl, M. & Cashman, D. (2018). Improving Distance Student Retention Through Satisfaction and Authentic Experiences. International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design, 8(3), 60–77. doi: 10.4018/IJOPCD.2018070105. Chen, G., Xu, B., Lu, M. et al. (2018). Exploring Block Chain Technology and Its Potential Applications for Education. Smart Learning Environments, 5. doi:10.1186/ s40561-017-0050-x. Clemons, S. (2005) Encouraging Creativity in Online Courses. Retrieved from: http:// www.itdl.org/journal/jan_05/article05.htm. Distance learning definition. (2018). Cambridge Learner`s Dictionary. Retrieved from: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/distance-learning. Distance Learning definition. (2018). Merriam  – Webster Dictionary. Retrieved from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/distance%20learning. Dehtjare, J. (2019). Digitalization of the  Hospitality Industry and its Impact on Education. Collective monograph “Development and Transformation Processes in the Tourism Industry under the Conditions of Globalization”. Klaipeda State University of Applied Science. Retrieved from: http://ebooks.kvk.lt/einfo/1811/development-and-transformation- processes-in-the-tourism-industry-under-the-conditions-of-globalization/). E-learning platform definition. (2018). Retrieved from: https://www.litmos.com/ platform/e-learning-platform-definition. Gonsalez, R. (2010). The Use of Emails and Blogs in Educaion. Retrieved from: https:// www.slideshare.net/RoyZ112/the-use-of-emails-and-blogs-in-education. Moodle vs E-learning platform comparison chart. (2018). Retrieved from: https://www. getapp.com/education-childcare-software/a/moodle/compare/braincert/. Pucciarelli, M., & Cantoni, L. (2012). Mobile Access to Knowledge. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259754675. Sharples, M. (2018). Learning As Conversation: Transforming Education in the Mobile Age. Retrieved from: http://www.academia.edu. Tajbiul, H. (2018). Techniques of Educational Broadcasting in Distance Mode and Its Social Implication. Sociology and Anthropology, 6(6), 557–562. doi: 10.13189/ sa.2018.060606. The History of Facebook. (2019). Retrieved from: https://www.brandwatch.com/blog/ history-of-facebook/. Zumoko. AR for Education and Learning. (2018). Retrieved from: https://www.zumoko. com/industries/education-and-learning/. Khudenko, K. Худенко, К. (2019). “Vymirayem, uyezzhayem, no dovol’ny, kak nikogda. Politologi i uchenyye obsudili demografiyu.” Вымираем, уезжаем, но довольны, как никогда. Политологи и ученые обсудили демографию. [We are dying out, leaving, but happy as ever. Political scientists and scientists discussed demography.] Retrieved from: https://rus.delfi.lv/news/daily/story/vymiraem-uezzhaem-no-dovolny-kak- nikogda-politiki-i-uchenye-obsudili-demografiyu.d?id=50820627. 231Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 DEVELOPMENT OF METACOGNITION AWARENESS SCALE FOR 10TH–12TH GRADE Edmunds Vanags University of Latvia, Latvia Pavels Pestovs University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT One of the  goals of the  Latvian National Development Plan is to reduce the  proportion of students with low cognitive skills, and at the  same time increase the  proportion of students with high level cognitive skills by the  year 2020. In line with this goal, National Centre for Education has initiated a curriculum and educational assessment system reform. It is important to create assessment instruments for both: subject specific content and 21st century skills, which are integrated in the learning outcomes in the revised curriculum. The  aim of this study was to develop and pilot a  new metacognitive awareness scale for 10–12  grade pupils. The  instrument was based on the  structure of the  Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (Schraw, & Sperling, 1994), creating new items and making them specific to the  content of national level large-scale assessment in Science. A  total of 1,257 pupils (48.4% boys, 51.6% girls) aged M = 15.30 (SD = 0.53) participated in the study. To find out the  pupils’ metacognitive awareness factors, 35 statements about different metacognitive activities were developed. Factor analysis showed good structure of 3 factors – planning, monitoring, and evaluation, but weak structure of other possible factors. Internal consistency of the overall scale was good (α = 0.92). Discrimination and difficulty index levels meet accepted psychometric criteria. After multiple iterations, confirmatory factorial analysis revealed that 9-item model had good fit and good structure of three components: planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Keywords: metacognitive awareness inventory, cognition regulation, exploratory and confirmatory factorial analysis. Introduction Employment distribution over the  last years has shifted towards jobs with high and low non-routine skills. High skills encompass problem- solving, abstract reasoning, and decision-making, but low skills demand basic human adaptability (Dorn, 2009). In manufacture, a  very similar trend prevails, where a  shift from large numbers of low and medium https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.15 Edmunds Vanags, Pavels Pestovs Development of Metacognition Awareness Scale ... 232 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 skilled jobs to smaller number of high skill jobs for the  same output is observed (Timmer et al., 2014). There is no lack of jobs in the market, but the jobs being created demand a higher level of skills, than the jobs which have been lost (Wiliam, 2018). Therefore the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) states one of the key indicators of the K-12 education system quality the proportion of students which is below Level 1 (students cannot recognise basic aspects or simple phenomenon) and the proportion of students, who have reached Level 4 and Level 5 (students demonstrate full and detailed understanding of phenomenon, abstract and complex thinking skills) (OECD, 2016). One of the  goals in Latvia for the  Education Development Plan Year 2014 – Year 2020 of the Ministry of Education is to reduce the proportion of students with low cognitive skills (especially student proportion below Level 1) and at the same time to raise the proportion of students with high cognitive skills. In line with these goals, National Centre for Education has lounched a comprehensive curriculum reform applied to the learning system from kindergarten to the  12th grade, prioritising 21st century skills such as problem solving and critical thinking, communication, collaboration, civic participation, creativity and entrepreneurship, digital literacy and self-regulated learning. The content of the curriculum has been organized in seven learning areas: languages, social sciences, cultural understanding and artistic self-expression, natural sciences, mathematics, technology, and health and physical activity with complex learning outcomes which integrates understanding, skills and attitudes ( Regulations Regarding the State Standard in Basic Education, the Subjects of Study Standards in Basic Education and Model Basic Educational Programmes, 2018). In the  research there is a  growing evidence that students with better self-regulated learning skills tend to learn better and with less effort (Zimmerman, 2000). Self-regulated learning consists of controlling learning environment, setting goals, choosing and using appropriate strategies and monitoring progress towards goals. Self-regulated learning consists of three components: cognition, metacognition and motivation. As various authors conceptualize metacognition construct, consisting of two subcomponents: knowledge and regulation of cognition. (Schraw et al., 2006). Metacognition has been a  priority in the  research literature as one of the  key factors which positively influences student achievements and learning outcomes (Dignath & Büttner, 2008). In the  last years scientific studies in the metacognition examines not only laboratory settings, but also classroom settings (Veenman & Alexander, 2011). In additional metacognitive knowledge and skills seem to be related to the  successful transfer of learning and deeper problem pattern 233Edmunds Vanags, Pavels Pestovs. Development of Metacognition Awareness Scale ... recognition. When experts find themselves in a  new situation without specific knowledge and experience, they are prone to use a more general strategy to solve the problem. Self-knowledge can be both a facilitator and a constraint in such situations. There are several interconnections between metacognitive knowledge, learning, teaching, and assessing, which are difficult to separate. Most often teachers assume that students could acquire metacognitive knowledge on their own, but in this case this assumption is wrong. Only some students are able to acquire metacognitive knowledge through experience. However even a  separate course is not an effective way to develop metacognitive skills. Such strategies should be embedded in the subject practice. In terms of assessment, its process is more informal and is revealed through conversation and observation. In some cases, it is possible to use more structured interviews and questionnaires (Pintrich, 2002). Effectiveness of metacognition in student learning outcomes and well- being is firmly stated in research, but there is little evidence that schools are using such metacognition strategies universally. The central goal is to understand the  effect of use and assessment of metacognitive strategies with the view to improve student learning outcomes (Perry et al., 2019). The  key distinguished criteria between students who use metacognitive skills and students who don’t is a  consciousness way to solving new problems. When students are confronted with a  new novel problem they cannot rely on the  algorithm. Students who often find themselves in an unknown situation should apply and use more general strategies. Marcel Veenman has extensively studied relation between intelligence and metacognition, he claims that it is possible to teach metacognition from primary school to university and certain conditions promote metacognitive skill acquisition. Metacognition should be embedded in the  curriculum, explaining to the pupils the aim of metacognition and metacognitive skill learning should be extended over longer period of time (Van der Stel & Veenman, 2014). Metacognition allows people to solve novel problems in new contexts and every subject can benefit from metacognition teaching. Schools are trying to use innovative solutions, in order to maximize student progress. There is also a  need for greater focus on research and development of tools to measure metacognition, primarily for the screening purpose. Metacognition promotion has specially big positive effect for disadvantageous students’ learning outcomes (Perry et al., 2019). There are Several categorizations of metacognition. One of the problem in research literature is that different constructs are inconsistent and lack coherence (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). One of the  greatest debates revolves over the  question whether metacognition is domain general or domain 234 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 specific. Studies reveal, that it is both domain specific and domain general. It depends highly on the  context, especially on the  age of the  students. Recent studies state that metacognitive skills have a tendency to generalize over time (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). According to the  authors’ systematic review, there is a tendency of growing of research studies in metacognition, especially in more specific domain circumstances, and even in finer grain structure, for example Newtons mechanics (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). First signals showed that young children are quite unaware of their cognition phenomena or metacognition. They do relatively little memory, comprehension and other processes monitoring (Flavell, 1979). According to Flavell, monitoring of cognitive processes occurs as four cognitive phenomena: metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experience, goals or tasks and metacognitive strategies (Flavell, 1979). In real life situations, metacognition is rather concerned with the extent to how much you should believe in an idea or do what it says, and not how well you understand it. One of the  concerning questions is that studies in metacognition predominately are conducted among older students. The  evolution of professional development of in and pre service teachers in the  field of metacognitive knowledge about instruction is still under research (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). Aim of the Study The aim of this study was to develop a new metacognitive awareness inventory for 10-12 grade pupils for screening purposes. For this reason, two data analysis were conducted, with the following research questions: 1) does the  structure of a  new inventory meet psychometric criteria and forms of metacognitive component i.e. factors of regulation of cognition? 2) does the  determined factors of metacognition are confirmed by empirical data? Materials and Methods Participants A total of 1,524 pupils (49.6% boys, 50.4% girls) aged 15 to 16 years, M  =  15.30 (SD  =  0.54) participated in the  study and completed Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. After clearing data of incomplete inventories, data of 1257 pupils (48.4% boys, 51.6% girls) aged 15 to 16 years, M  =  15.30, (SD  =  0.53) was used in analysis (14-year-olds were 69.38 %, and 15-year-olds 30.62 %). Students from 60 schools in Latvia participated in the  study. On average, pupils from each school were 235Edmunds Vanags, Pavels Pestovs. Development of Metacognition Awareness Scale ... M  =  20.6, SD  =  14.77 (median  =  16). Average time for completing the inventory was M = 5.60 minutes (SD = 5.41, median = 5). Differences between gender samples were only in three items however the differences were minor (Cohen’s d 0.23 [95% CI: 0.12, 0.34], so further data analysis was done across the whole sample. Instruments 35 items were developed based on the  idea of original 52-items Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (Schraw & Dennison, 1994 by permission of auth. Dennison) with an aim to create short instrument of MA evaluation. New items were created and made specific to the content of national level large scale-assessment in Science, according to the  new curriculum. Items were arranged in 5 subcomponents of regulation of cognition as in the original inventory: 1) planning — planning, goal setting, and allocating resources prior to learning (f.e. “I read instructions carefully before I begin a  task”); 2) monitoring  – assessment of one’s learning or strategy use (f.e. “I find myself analysing the usefulness of strategies while I study”); 3) evaluation – analysis of performance and strategy effectiveness after a learning episode (f.e. “I ask myself if I have considered all options after I solve a problem”; 4) information management – skills and strategy sequences used online to process information more efficiently (e.g. organizing, elaborating, summarizing, selective focusing)(f.e. “I slow down when I encounter important information”); 5) debugging – strategies used to correct comprehension and performance errors (f.e. “I stop and reread when I get confused”). The  survey response scale was in 6-point Likert scale from “never” to “always”. Procedure The survey was given to pupils right after they had completed the test in natural science during second semester of 2019. Survey was filled online immediately after the test. Inventory items were divided into 3 blocks and before each block, there a  were specific instructions given about before, during and after tasks (Maitland et al., 2015). For example: “Now, there will be a number of statements about what you thought you were thinking about before you started to perform tasks”, thus extending it to the planning phase. Inventories were completed in large groups, classroom setting right after completing the test. Students used the instrument’s standard response format  – rating each item using a  5-point Likert-type scale: 1 (never), 2 (seldom), 3 (sometimes), 4 (often), and 5 (always). The instrument took less than 30 minutes to complete. The  few students who chose not to participate in completing the instruments were given a book to read. 236 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Data analysis In order to answer the  questions of the  research, the  indices of total item correlations or discrimination and reaction or difficulty were analyzed, as well the internal consistency. Subsequently, a factor analysis (EFA) was performed. Finally, the  structure of the  obtained factors was tested by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). JASP data processing software was used. Results To answer the first research question, initial descriptive analysis of items were calculated (Table 1) to test item reaction and discrimination indices. Reaction indexes were M = .59 SD = .22 (.33 – .80) (recommended >.6), corrected item total correlation .15 – .62 (recommended .30-.70). All items were decided to be appropriate for inclusion in the EFA. Internal consistency was calculated by Cronbach’s criterion and for all scale α was .92. Before the factor analysis, appropriateness of the data for the factor analysis was analysed via Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Barlett Sphericity test. KMO value of the  scale was .92 which means that data are appropriate for the  factor analysis (Barrett & Morgan, 2005). Bartlett’s test of sphericity, which shows multivariate normality, was significant (χ²(595)  =  13508, p<.001). Factorial analysis with varimax rotation was conducted. Factors were initially retained based on consideration of the  eigenvalues and the  amount of variance explained. After removing the  unfit items, the structure of the factors improved, leaving the clearer structure of three components. Items relevant to information management and debugging strategies were inappropriate. However, data analysis showed that a three- factor model was appropriate. A  three-factor solution (with eigenvalues over 1.0) explained 43.98% of the  variance. The  first factor explained 28.09% of the variance, the second factor explained an additional 9.47% of the variance and the third factor 6.42% of the variance as well. In order to answer the  second research question, confirmatory factorial analysis was conducted. With CFA it is possible to explore how the  measurement model which operationalizes the  theoretical factor structure fits a set of empirical data (Harrison & Vallin, 2018). To evaluate the  fit of the  models, criteria recommended in Hu & Bentler (1999) was used where adequate models typically exceed .90 on the global comparative fit index (CFI) and the  Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) and well-fitting models have CFI and TLI estimates greater than .95 with the  root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) less than .06. To compare the  models, maximum likelihood estimation was used. Factorial analysis was based on three-component model: planning, monitoring, and evaluation. To identify the best set of items, CFA was made in multiple iterations. 237Edmunds Vanags, Pavels Pestovs. Development of Metacognition Awareness Scale ... Table 1. Descriptive statistics of MAI version Mean SD Diffi-culty Discrim- in ation Skew- ness SE Kurtosis SE Item 1 4.12 1.39 .69 .44 -0.241 0.069 -0.755 0.138 Item 2 3.86 1.295 .64 .53 -0.147 0.069 -0.539 0.138 Item 3 3.3 1.281 .55 .52 0.262 0.069 -0.47 0.138 Item 4 4.66 1.277 .78 .45 -0.667 0.069 -0.327 0.138 Item 5 3.37 1.363 .56 .50 0.205 0.069 -0.677 0.138 Item 6 4.81 1.209 .80 .39 -0.715 0.069 -0.441 0.138 Item 7 1.99 1.164 .33 .36 1.254 0.069 1.299 0.138 Item 8 4.8 1.149 .80 .17 -1.118 0.069 1.115 0.138 Item 9 2.42 1.298 .40 .39 0.774 0.069 0.036 0.138 Item 10 3.73 1.403 .62 .43 -0.094 0.069 -0.746 0.138 Item 11 3.69 1.432 .62 .42 -0.202 0.069 -0.685 0.138 Item 12 3.11 1.247 .52 .60 0.352 0.069 -0.299 0.138 Item 13 3.98 1.353 .66 .50 -0.187 0.069 -0.788 0.138 Item 14 3.47 1.298 .58 .62 0.076 0.069 -0.613 0.138 Item 15 3.75 1.333 .63 .55 -0.008 0.069 -0.779 0.138 Item 16 2.7 1.364 .45 .38 0.545 0.069 -0.417 0.138 Item 17 3.95 1.365 .66 .17 -0.534 0.069 -0.477 0.138 Item 18 4.47 1.312 .75 .47 -0.475 0.069 -0.674 0.138 Item 19 3.52 1.273 .59 .56 0.099 0.069 -0.592 0.138 Item 20 3.45 1.476 .58 .52 0.141 0.069 -0.896 0.138 Item 21 3.78 1.216 .63 .57 0.009 0.069 -0.483 0.138 Item 22 3.39 1.263 .57 .25 0.105 0.069 -0.56 0.138 Item 23 3.6 1.209 .60 .53 0.163 0.069 -0.465 0.138 Item 24 3.57 1.303 .60 .45 0.068 0.069 -0.553 0.138 Item 25 3.72 1.269 .62 .46 0.012 0.069 -0.601 0.138 Item 26 2.86 1.4 .48 .33 0.391 0.069 -0.693 0.138 Item 27 3.55 1.308 .59 .44 0.018 0.069 -0.555 0.138 Item 28 3.3 1.283 .55 .52 0.113 0.069 -0.473 0.138 Item 29 2.91 1.298 .49 .40 0.474 0.069 -0.191 0.138 Item 30 3.06 1.317 .51 .43 0.247 0.069 -0.51 0.138 Item 31 3.94 1.379 .66 .15 -0.476 0.069 -0.53 0.138 Item 32 3.07 1.327 .51 .46 0.299 0.069 -0.49 0.138 Item 33 3.12 1.387 .52 .48 0.233 0.069 -0.638 0.138 Item 34 3.01 1.271 .50 .53 0.293 0.069 -0.441 0.138 Item 35 3.53 1.376 .59 .51 0.043 0.069 -0.633 0.138 SE – standard error As Table 2 shows, the first 5 models indicate that none met the criteria for adequate fit. The  factorial model with each subsequent iteration was improved after several iterations of item elimination. At the  6th iteration after 23 items had been eliminated, best criteria was met. The  model functioned adequately (based on the criteria that adequate models have CFI and TLI > .95). In this 9-item model, the global fit indices indicated good 238 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 model fit (CFI =  .966, TLI =  .949, RMSE =  .059 [95% CI: .049-.069]), and the chi-square test was still significant (χ2 = 131, df = 24, p < .001). Final iteration resulted in 9 items (Appendix 1) that had good fit in CFA models and clear structure of 3 components: planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Table 2. Iterative models of CFA of Short Metacognitive Awareness Scale items RMSEA 90% CI Iteration N of items CFI TLI SRMR RMSEA Lower Upper 1 32 items .807 .784 .057 .065 .063 .067 2 30 items .841 .820 .053 .061 .059 .064 3 21 items .888 .864 .044 .063 .059 .067 4 14 items .916 .885 .043 .068 .063 .074 5 11 items .936 .908 .038 .068 .060 .076 6 9 items .966 .949 .026 .059 .049 .069 Conclusions There is a lack of credible empirical data for the more than three factor model of metacognition and instruments tend to be more inaccurate than the  fine-grained theoretical descriptions (Pintrich et al., 2000). Overall evaluation of the  Short Metacognition Awareness Scale (SMAS) which captures only one component of metacognition shows that it has three main components of regulation of cognition (Table 3). The  Components include planning, monitoring and evaluation factors. Items relevant to information management and debugging strategies were unappropriated and excluded from the  inventory. This structure is similar to the  two- component structure suggested by other researches of regulation of cognition (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1987; Jacobs & Paris, 1987). Confirmatory factorial analysis revealed that 9-item model had good fit and good structure of 3 components: planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Our provisional conclusion is that this 9-item subset will function equally well in sample of 10–12 graders. According to the  initial development results SMAS instrument is convenient for the  teachers’ use in classroom for screening purposes without overburden for the  students and without time consumption. Authors argue that metacognition regulation should be assessed during the teaching and learning process to develop better teacher practices and student awareness of metacognition regulation. Further research is necessary to develop and validate instruments in different grades in order to establish convergent and discriminant validity for use in school for the  whole K-12 education. The  next steps will 239Edmunds Vanags, Pavels Pestovs. Development of Metacognition Awareness Scale ... determine the  relevance of the  instrument to specific aspects of science subjects as well in other learning areas. As with all research studies, this study has limitations. The  sample is more homogeneous in terms of students, because it is based on schools which participate in new curriculum development, which brings school focus on the  21st century skills. But at the  time of starting the  research, the  school curriculum did not include teaching metacognitive skills, and thus one can assume that the ability to reflect on their own cognition was not developed explicitly. in the further research, it is very important to find out which metacognitive components predict better student achievement in different subjects. Table 3. Short Metacognitive Awareness Scale statements Component Statement Planning I consider problem solving strategy before I begin a task Planning I consider several alternatives to a problem before I begin a task. Planning I think of several ways to solve a problem and choose the best one. Monitoring I ask myself if I have considered all options when solving a problem. Monitoring I ask myself questions about how well the problem-solving strategy is during the task. Monitoring I find myself pausing regularly to check my comprehension. Evaluation I ask myself how well I accomplish my goals once I’m finished Evaluation I ask myself if I have considered all options after I solve a problem. Evaluation I ask myself if I completed as much as I could have once I finish a paper. References Barrett, K. C., & Morgan, G. A. (2005). SPSS for intermediate statistics: use and interpretation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. Metacognition, motivation, and understanding. Dignath, C., & Büttner, G. (2008). Components of fostering self-regulated learning among students. A  meta-analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level. Metacognition and learning, 3(3), 231–264. Dorn, D. (2009). This job is” getting old”: Measuring changes in job opportunities using occupational age structure. American Economic Review, 99(2), 45–51. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive– developmental inquiry. American psychologist, 34(10), 906. Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition. Metacognition, motivation and understanding. 240 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Harrison, G. M., & Vallin, L. M. (2018). Evaluating the  metacognitive awareness inventory using empirical factor-structure evidence. Metacognition and Learning, 13(1), 15–38. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1–55. Jacobs, J. E., & Paris, S. G. (1987). Children’s metacognition about reading: Issues in definition, measurement, and instruction. Educational psychologist, 22(3–4), 255–278. Maitland. A.. Sun. H.. Tourangeau. R.. Almonte. D. E.. & Bertling. J. P. (2015). Exploration of matrix questions on fourth-grade students using eye-tracking. In  Presentation at the  NAEP Questionnaire Standing Committee Meeting. Washington. DC. Regulations Regarding the  State Standard in Basic Education, the  Subjects of Study Standards in Basic Education and Model Basic Educational Programmes, 747, (2018). Retrieved from https://likumi.lv/ta/id/303768 OECD. (2016). PISA 2015 Results (Volume I): Excellence and Equity in Education. Paris: OECD Publishing. Perry, J., Lundie, D., & Golder, G. (2019). Metacognition in schools: What does the  literature suggest about the  effectiveness of teaching metacognition in schools? Educational Review, 71(4), 483–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2018.1441127. Pintrich, P. R. (2002). The  Role of Metacognitive Knowledge in Learning, Teaching, and Assessing. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15430421tip4104_3. Pintrich, P. R., Wolters, C. A., & Baxter, G. P. (2000). 2. assessing metacognition and self- regulated learning. Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education: Metacognition as Part of a  Broader Perspective on Learning. Research in Science Education, 36(1–2), 111–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-005-3917-8. Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary educational psychology, 19(4), 460–475. Timmer, M. P., Erumban, A. A., Los, B., Stehrer, R., & de Vries, G. J. (2014). Slicing Up Global Value Chains. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 28(2), 99–118. https://doi. org/10.1257/jep.28.2.99. Van der Stel, M., & Veenman, M. V. J. (2014). Metacognitive skills and intellectual ability of young adolescents: A  longitudinal study from a  developmental perspective. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 29(1), 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10212-013-0190-5. Veenman, M. V., & Alexander, P. (2011). Learning to self-monitor and self-regulate. Handbook of research on learning and instruction, 197–218. Wiliam, D. (2018). Creating the schools our children need: Why what we’re doing now won’t help much (and what we can do instead). West Palm Beach, Florida: Learning Sciences International. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A  social cognitive perspective. From: Handbook of self-regulation (13–39). Elsevier. Zohar, A., & Barzilai, S. (2013). A  review of research on metacognition in science education: Current and future directions. Studies in Science Education, 49(2), 121–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2013.847261. 241Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ENHANCING STUDENTS’ METACOGNITION IN THE CLASSROOM Anda Priedite University of Latvia ABSTRACT Metacognition and its effects on learning have been studied for more than 40 years. However, until now there has not been a  requirement for teachers in Latvia to develop students’ metacognitive skills. With the new competence-based curriculum from 1st September 2020, it will become mandatory. Three essential regulation skills that student’s need to develop are planning, monitoring and evaluating. To understand better teachers’ current practice and readiness to implement new curriculum, a case study was carried out. The aim of the case study was to collect data about elements of metacognition in teachers’ current practice. To achieve this aim, 20 consecutive lessons were observed in a large school in Riga. Lessons were taught by 10 different teachers, but to the same students (10th grade). During the lessons, observations of students and teachers’ actions that potentially are connected to the  metacognition were recorded and briefly described. Afterwards field notes were classified and analysed according to the categories − planning, monitoring, evaluating. In conclusion, practical ideas to promote students’ metacognition are summarised. Keywords: metacognition, teachers’ practice, planning, monitoring, evaluating. Introduction & background In the literature, metacognition was first described in the late seventies of 20th century by Flavell (1979) as one’s knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes and anything related to these. In another words, cognitive knowledge and skills are necessary to perform a task, while metacognition is necessary to understand how the task was performed (Garner, 1987, as cited in Schraw, 1998). Researchers describe two aspects of metacognition − knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Schraw, 1998). This means that metacognition involves not only the knowledge and awareness of cognition but also the  ability to control it (Swartz & Perkins, 1989). In the  school context, components of metacognition are awareness of processes that influence learning and the  successful completion of the  task, ability to https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.16 Anda Priedite Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom 242 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 determine if a  task is being completed correctly, capability to monitor progress, adapt and make appropriate changes in learning strategies if necessary (Baker & Brown, 1984). Metacognitive knowledge includes declarative knowledge (the students’ knowledge of his or herself as a  learner, the  knowledge about academic tasks), procedural knowledge (the knowledge about learning and learning strategies that can be employed to fulfil the assigned task) and conditional knowledge (knowing when, how and why to use declarative and procedural knowledge) (Baker & Brown, 1984; Schraw, 1998). Cognitive regulation skills that students need to advance to become metacognitive and independent learners include self-awareness, self- responsibility, self-reflection, goal setting, time management, planning and selecting appropriate learning strategies, monitoring progress of learning, analysing the  effectiveness of learning strategies, correcting errors and changing learning behaviours and strategies when necessary (Ridley et al., 1992; Winn & Snyder, 1996). In the  next few years, the  gradual transition to competence-based education will take place in schools of Latvia. Previous amendments to the basic education standard were made in 2014. The new basic education standard comes into force on September 1st, 2019. One of the major changes in the new standard is that in addition to subject specific knowledge, skills and competences content has been complemented by transversal skills and value-based habits (Regulations Regarding the State Standard in Basic Education, LV, 2018). Metacognitive skills are incorporated under one of six transversal skills related to self-regulated learning. Despite the  fact there are common core between self-regulated learning and metacognition, they cannot be viewed as synonyms. Self-regulated learning incorporates aspects of both metacognition and self-regulation (Dinsmore, Alexander & Loughlin, 2008). The focus of this article is metacognitive part of self-regulated learning. Among the  new basic education requirements, metacognitive learning outcomes are: • Students set short-term and long-term goals, plan steps to achieve the goal, • Students use the strengths of their thinking and strategies of thinking that are appropriate to the  situation to develop their abilities and improve their performance, • Students independently develop criteria, which indicate the achievement of the goal, learn about their progress and determine whether and how to improve performance. • Students use mistakes to purposefully change their actions. In the  course of learning, students re-plan a  few steps to get a  better solution. 243Anda Priedite. Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom The implementation of the  new standard in schools will begin as of September 1, 2020 for grades 1, 4 and 7, on September 1, 2021 for grades 2, 5 and 8, and September 1, 2022 for grades 3, 6 and 9. To implement metacognition in practice, teachers will need support. In the next sections of the  article, the  general principles that characterize classroom practice promoting metacognition are outlined and case study results (that was carried out in a  school that represents a  typical large school in Riga) are analyzed to better understand teachers’ current practice. In conclusion, the findings about the students and teacher actions that enhance students’ metacognitive skills are summarised. Metacognition in classroom There are many evidences provided by researchers as to why metacognition is important in learning process and why teachers should focus their attention on the development of students’ metacognitive skills. For example, Alexander and colleagues (1988) suggest that teaching metacognitive strategies improves students’ academic achievements, by improving students’ cognitive processing and learning (Azevedo, et al. 2007). Teaching metacognitive strategies also increases students’ self- awareness about what it takes to learn (Kolencik & Hillwig, 2011). In fact, in some situations metacognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation skills can compensate for the  lack of cognitive knowledge and skills (Schraw, 1998). Costa (1984) points out that in the  learning process students tend to follow instructions and rarely think about learning strategies and efficiency of their learning, if they are not encouraged by the teacher. To develop students’ metacognitive skills and the  habit to use those skills it is necessary to include in lessons activities/ tasks/, methods that compel students to think about their thinking and learning process. However, this should not be seen as some additional activities and tasks for teachers to do, but rather as effective pedagogy that is incorporated in their everyday classroom practice (Quigley, et al., 2018). There are various strategies to enhance metacognition for teachers to choose. In previous research that aims to identify instructional approaches that promote metacognition, three categories of instructional strategies have been identified — planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking (Ellis, et al., 2014). Planning includes goal setting, selection of appropriate learning strategies, estimation of time and resources needed to fulfil the  task. Monitoring includes following the fulfilment of the task, ability to engage in periodic self-testing, changing learning strategy if necessary. Evaluating 244 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 includes assessing not only the  learning outcome but also the  learning process (Quigley, 2016; Schraw, 1998). In Table 1, questions of self-reflection regarding planning, monitoring and evaluating are summarised. Questions can be used to help students successfully plan, monitor and evaluate the task and their efforts (Quigley, 2016). Table 1. Questions of self-reflection Planning What prior knowledge do I need to tackle the task? What type of planning process should I use? What is the most appropriate strategy to fulfil the task? What examples can I use to guide me? How much time do I have? What resources do I need? Where should I start? Monitoring Am I on the right track? Have I made any mistakes? What I need to pay attention based on previous feedback? Do I have any typical failings that I should be aware of? Do I need to change approach/ technique? What do I do if I am stuck? What do I need to do next? Evaluating How well did I do? Did I match the success criteria / complete checklist? Is there anything that I missed? Do I need to go back and fix errors/ make additions? Is this the best possible version that I can do? Did I choose the right approach/ strategy/ technique? What alternative approaches/ strategies/ techniques would I like to try? How can I do better next time? The Plan, monitor, evaluate cycle can be done over shorter or longer learning activities  – it may be one task, one lesson or the  whole day. While there are some benefits to introducing students to the  planning, monitoring, and evaluating in general, and many of the  strategies can be used in different subjects, the evidence suggests that they are best taught through subject content (Quigley, et al, 2018). Studies also show that direct instructions in metacognition may not be effective. Instead, for metacognition to improve, students have to experience the  need for those strategies (Costa, 1984), and that happens when students are challenged. If students undertake a  challenging task, they have to develop new skills/ strategies to fulfil it, they have to plan how to overcome challenges and afterwards they have something to reflect on. However, challenges need to be set at an appropriate level, or the  learners may not accept the challenge or they can be subjected to cognitive overload (Quigley, et al., 2018). That means that teachers need 245Anda Priedite. Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom to be careful about when and how to place metacognitive tasks so as not to distract students when they are learning cognitive content because there is a risk that students will not be able to develop new cognitive and new metacognitive skills at the same time (Quigley, et al., 2018). Methodology This article deals with part of the ethnographic research, which aims to develop a support system that would help teachers in Latvia to implement metacognition into their practices. To understand teachers’ current practice better, a  case study was carried out. The  aim of the  study was to collect data about the  elements of metacognition already present in lessons before the  implementation of the  new curriculum. To achieve this aim, 20  consecutive lessons taught by different teachers, but to same students (10th Form), were observed in a large school (1300 students, 100 teachers) in Riga. The school and the class were chosen randomly. Teachers, students and parents were informed about the  study. They were informed that the  aim of the  study is to better understand the  current learning process at the  school, but it wasn’t revealed that the  researcher is particularly interested in metacognition. Participants agreed that data from lesson observation will be analysed. The participants were informed that the name of the school and the names of the teachers and pupils will stay anonymous. When interpreting the results of this study one needs to remember that it represents situation in a particular school, but as the school chosen for research represents a typical large school in Riga (regarding qualification of teachers, teachers’ professional development activities in school, students’ results in state examinations and students’ background), with caution the conclusions may be extended to other schools. All lessons the particular students had during the period of three days were observed. The number of lessons was chosen to cover different classes (Latvian, literature, English, German, Russian, history, mathematics, physics, biology, geography, economics) and 10 different teachers. During lesson observations, students and teachers’ actions that potentially are connected to the  metacognition were recorded and briefly described (teachers’ role, students’ role, and activities). Afterwards, 19 pages of recorded field notes were classified according to the categories offered in the literature – planning, monitoring, evaluating. Only those activities and actions that were purposefully included in the  course of the  lesson (where the  task given by the teacher required students’ metacognitive thinking) were used in the  analysis. For example, “the teacher asks students to discuss, compare and evaluate their solution of the problem” is a metacognitive activity that is purposely included in the  lesson by the  teacher, but “during the  time that 246 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 teacher is intended for students to work independently on the problem, one student quietly asked his peers to compare results” is not an action that is fostered by the teacher although the student displayed metacognitive monitoring. Results and discussion Planning The first step to students’ awareness of learning and metacognition is clear learning objectives. Communication of learning objectives was observed in 15 lessons out of 20. Learning objective should state what students would be able to do at the end of the lesson or learning segment. Lesson observation indicates that teachers tend to formulate learning objectives as the theme of lesson, e.g., “Today we will learn about gravitation and motion in gravitational field” or state what students will do in the lesson, e.g., “We will prepare for the  test”. Another example seen in lessons is to formulate learning objectives as a  question, e.g., “Why Charles the  Great is important and unique in European history?” A  simple way to influence metacognition is to change the  way teachers are formulating learning objectives. Verbs like analyse, compare, evaluate, categorise, organise, debate suggests higher level thinking and triggers metacognition by stimulating students to think about what they had to do in the  past when they previously had to analyse/ compare/ evaluate etc. (Kolencik & Hillwig, 2011). In the  example about Charles the  Great, the  improved learning objective would be analyse the influence of Charles the Great on the economic, political and cultural development of Europe. Only in one lesson (out of 20), the teacher talked not only about learning objectives for specific lesson, but also about the  long term learning goals and how the lesson leads to them. Of concern in this respect, is that students were never involved in the  formulation of learning objectives or discussion about them. One of the  metacognitive skills students need to develop is setting learning objectives for themselves. In all of the observed lessons, previously learned knowledge and skills were activated. Activating prior knowledge itself is a metacognitive activity. In almost all cases, teachers used the same method – frontal questions and answers, e.g., “What do you remember from the  last lesson?”, “What do you know about …?” “Based on… what we will learn today?” etc. While these are good questions, which stimulate metacognition, rarely more than a  few students were actively participated in these question and answer sessions. This can be easily improved by using the think – pair – share technique that was observed in one of the lessons. That would give students a chance to think independently at first, and for all students to be active participants. 247Anda Priedite. Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom Another approach observed in lessons to activate previously learned knowledge was the  use of picture as a  way to create initial interest in the  content to be studied, and test questions and puzzles as formative assessment of previously learned content. The  literature suggests many other ways to activate prior knowledge, e.g., a  commonly used organiser is the K-W-L chart (What do I already know? What do I want to learn? What have I learned?) (Kolencik & Hillwig, 2011). Teachers should be encouraged to be more diverse in methods, techniques and the learning strategies they use in classroom. Another of the metacognitive skills students should master is the ability to estimate time and resources needed to fulfil the  task. Only one of the observed teachers asked students to estimate how much time they will need for a  specific task. In two other cases teachers set time limits for activities. However, in all the rest of the observed lessons there were not set any time limits for students and, in combination with vague learning objectives, this discourages students to take responsibility for their time management. Monitoring Regarding monitoring, there were occasions when the  teacher stopped students in the  middle of the  process of problem-solving to discuss their progress. In 10 cases, it happened in response to students’ questions, for example, in the  lesson of mathematics the  question about how to draw specific graphs triggered class discussion. Similar examples were observed, e.g., in the lessons of geography and Latvian. Monitoring was also observed in the  situations when students needed to complete tasks with several similar examples (13 cases), e.g., in Latvian students needed to create adverbs from given words. After students tried some examples on their own, the teacher stopped them, compared and discussed what students had written. Then students continued to work on their own. Another way how monitoring was present in the  classroom was in the form of individual feedback from teachers. In some cases, the feedback was given publicly during class discussion (observed in 5 lessons). For example, in the  English lesson after each student had presented his/ her arguments, the  teacher asked questions, such as “What do you mean with  ...?”, “Why …?”, “How do you define…?” etc. Similar examples were also observed in lessons of German, history and literature. The observation showed that a  typical way for the  teacher to give feedback (observed in 15 lesson) was while students individually worked on the task, the teacher walked through class and gave an individual feedback to students. Mostly this feedback was about cognitive content. However, in some cases there were also metacognitive questions present, e.g., in 248 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 a  history lesson the  task for students was to display written information on the map. While giving individual feedback, the teacher asked questions like “What was the task?”, “Why did you mark this?”, “What does this colour/ arrow represents?” etc. Evaluating There were several ways observed in lessons that showed how the teacher encourages students to evaluate their work and learning. One way is to offer students the task of self-reflection at the end of the lesson (observed in 7 lessons). For example, at the end of the Latvian lesson students were asked to complete a short test to check their understanding about adverbs and write questions about what is still unclear for them. At the  end of the history lesson students were asked to write three words that describes Charles the Great. At the end of the literature lesson, students were asked to vote about the  learning that had happened in the  lesson (“Did I learn something new?” “Did I actualise something I already knew?”). At the end of the  English lesson, the  teacher had a  discussion about the  debates that students had during lesson, each student was asked, “What do you think you need to improve?”, “How did you feel?”, “Are you satisfied with your response?” In one of the observed lessons, self-reflection was the first task students did. In the lesson of economics, students were asked to evaluate what they have already done regarding the idea about their student enterprise. There were four lessons were teacher intended to offer self-reflective tasks at the end of the lesson, but due to lack of time, it was not properly executed. For example, there were eight lessons where students did not have the  time and opportunity to self-reflect about the outcomes of the  lesson. Another way of evaluation observed in lessons was evaluation of particular task that students had worked on (observed in 18 lessons). For example, in the  lesson of Latvian, after students had finished a  task intended to actualise previous knowledge, teacher had a  class discussion about questions like “What part was the  easiest? Why?”, “What part was the hardest?”, “How did you solve the task?” Another example was observed in the German language lesson, where the teacher discussed with students the  correct answers, asked students to explain their answers and referred to the  diagrams that previously were introduced to better understand grammatical structures. Similar evaluation of task was also observed in other lessons, e.g., mathematics, geography, biology etc. In mathematics, the  teacher discussed with students how a  particular task would be evaluated in assessment. Part of evaluation that was not fully utilised in the  lessons is peer tutoring and peer evaluation. Although in some of the  lessons there were elements of peer evaluation and tutoring recorded, structured example 249Anda Priedite. Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom of peer evaluation were observed only in one lesson. In the  lesson of economics, students were asked to give specific feedback regarding peers’ presentations, in the  following lesson students worked with the  feedback they had received. Conclusions Although the fact that elements of metacognition are present in lessons is encouraging, lesson observations showed that in most cases these activities happen through the teacher. The teacher is mainly the one who states what and how students will learn, what strategies students will use (e.g., what graphic organisers students will use while working with text). For teachers to implement metacognition into their practice, examples of manageable actions that can be used as first steps in changing their practice and improving students’ metacognition could be useful. Based on the  data collected in the  case study and suggestions from the  literature, recommendations to promote students’ metacognition are summarised in Tables 2, 3 and 4. The first part of each table gives examples of teacher’s actions that stimulate students’ metacognition. For example, the teacher should verbalise the  thinking process regarding the  task. By doing so, the  teacher shows students how expert thinks about the problem; how the expert approaches and monitors the progress and also, how the expert evaluates the  results. When describing their thinking, the  teacher should use specific cognitive terminology. By deliberately including metacognitive terms (predict, reflect, classify, hypothesise, justify etc.) teacher demonstrates metacognitive awareness that students should develop (Kolencik & Hillwig, 2011). The second part of each table gives examples of students’ actions that indicate that students actively think about their learning. Students should first have the opportunity to use the models frequently, but the goal is to start practising these behaviours on their own (Gray, 1991). The last part of each table gives examples of useful classroom activities/ tasks that teachers can use in their lessons. Table 2, summarises students’ and teacher’s actions that enhance metacognitive planning skills. If the  recommendations from Table 2 are compared to the  case study results, the first step for teachers to improve their practice could be involving students in the  formulation of learning objectives. This is also one of the  learning outcomes of self-regulating learning in the  new basic education standard. Another important aspect regarding planning is that students should be able to choose an appropriate learning strategy for the  task. That means that students have to know the  different learning strategies (e.g., different strategies of how to work 250 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 with text). In the  observed lessons, there was only one occasion when the  teacher deliberately taught learning strategy (during the  history lesson, teacher demonstrated how to use the graphic organiser to construct a  definition of the  term). Researches, e.g., Kolencik and Hillwig (2011), indicate that teachers rarely teach learning strategies because they are convinced that students already know and are able to use them. If possible, students should create strategies on their own, discuss and evaluate them and practice them until they become a habit (Costa, 1984). Table 2. Summary of students’ and teacher’s actions to enhance planning skills Teacher’s actions Focus students’ attention on learning objectives, short-term and long- term goals. Make certain that students understand learning objectives. Activate prior knowledge and skills that will be important during the lesson/ task. Verbalise your metacognitive thinking related to planning. Give an exact and clear instructions for cognitive/ metacognitive strategies that students will need to use (for example, how to use a specific graphic organiser), make sure students understand the key aspects and main purpose of those strategies. Set time limits for activities. Students’ actions Set learning objectives for themselves Conclude what knowledge and skills that they already have are relevant to the task, and identify what they need to learn. Select appropriate strategies to fulfil the task successfully. Consider how to allocate their efforts, split responsibilities. Assess the time it will take to complete the activity. Make a list of resources that they will need, and where they can find them. Examples of useful classroom activities Together with students, generate a list of questions or things that they need to learn to solve the problem/ complete the task. Ask students to rewrite the problem in their own words, identify what they know and what they need to find out. Ask students in small groups or pairs, to come up with various ways to solve the problem/ complete the task. Use structured planning templates. Use metacognitive talk/ teacher and student “think aloud”. Visualise planning by using graphic organisers, concept maps, flow charts etc. Purposefully teach different learning strategies, e.g., how to take notes from the textbook. Table 3, summarises students’ and teacher’s actions that enhances metacognitive monitoring skills. If divided in the  categories of planning, monitoring and evaluating, most of recorded actions and activities observed in lessons were regarding evaluation, with the least regarding monitoring. There are researches showing that monitoring ability develops slowly and is deficient in children and even adults (Schraw, 1998). That means that monitoring should be of particular interest for future research. 251Anda Priedite. Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom Lesson observations showed that all elements of monitoring observed in lessons were carried out through teachers’ feedback. It can be changed by using peer tutoring or by using checklists and rubrics to enable students to monitor their progress individually. Table 3. Summary of students’ and teacher’s actions to enhance monitoring skills Teacher’s actions During the lesson, refocus students’ attention to learning objectives. Break down the activity into simpler steps. Set guidelines/ steps to follow during activity. Verbalise your metacognitive thinking related to monitoring. Teach strategies how to organise and retain information. Use visual timers. Give non-judgemental feedback about students’ decisions. Highlight successful examples and steps that led to success.   Use, paraphrase, extend and build upon students’ ideas. Ask clarifying questions about students’ terminology and problem solving process. Label students’ cognitive processes, e.g., “What you are doing is called an experiment”. Students’ actions Share their progress, describe their thinking, what they plan to do next and why. Use guidelines/ checklists (teacher given or self-made) to monitor their progress Examine their errors to identify where and why they went wrong. Examples of useful classroom activities Use metacognitive talk/ teacher and student “think aloud”. Offer completed or half-done examples, ask to analyse them, then discuss conclusions. Provide students with answer sheets after they have tried to solve the problem. Ask students to find, correct and explain their mistakes. Add metacognitive questionnaire for students to complete during learning activity/ assignment. Ask students to write down questions/ important concepts during activity. Invite students to use visual organisers – mind maps etc., to show and monitor their thinking Use role play and simulations. Ask students to solve problems in pairs or small groups, during activity partners should take turns acting as solver and listener. Purposefully teach different learning strategies, e.g., triplicate note making. Encourage students to give and receive feedback from peers through gallery critique. Table 4, summarizes students’ and teacher’s actions that enhances metacognitive evaluation skills. Lesson observations showed that in many cases self-reflective tasks at the end of activity or lesson were only about learning outcomes. To develop evaluation skills teachers and students 252 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 should focus more on the process of learning than the results of learning. Creating together with students, check-lists or rubrics, is an effective way to involve students in thinking about the quality of the work. Table 4. Summary of student and teacher actions to enhance metacognitive evaluation skills Teacher’s actions Verbalise your metacognitive thinking related to evaluation. Before learning activity, discuss with students how they will know that they have completed the task successfully. Before assignment provide or create together with students checklists, rating scales or rubrics. Give feedback according to previously set checklists/ rubrics. Help students to recognise what they did well and take credit for it. Encourage students to seek feedback from their peers. Students’ actions Evaluate their work and actions according to criteria, use criteria to justify their reasoning, Recognise what they did well, and take credit for it. Seek feedback from the teacher and peers. Examples of useful classroom activities Use metacognitive questionnaire during an exam/ exam wrappers. Ask students to review and analyse individual assessment results together with metacognitive questionnaire. Ask students to evaluate and compare multiple examples, with subtle differences. Use metacognitive talk/ teacher and student “think aloud”. Encourage peer tutoring (with clear parameters of time, roles and steps). Use different methods to give feedback, e.g., “Live feedback”. Offer students opportunities for self-testing and answer checking Provide students with different methods of self-reflection, e.g., “Learning journals”, “The Week in Review”, “Muddiest Point” etc. The case study shows that critical aspect of teachers’ current practice is the  fact that mostly planning, monitoring and evaluating is happening through the  teacher. To enhance students’ metacognition effectively, teachers should refocus those activities from themselves to students giving students a  chance to be more proactive participants in the  planning, monitoring and in the evaluating of their learning. This brings questions for future research: what are the factors that prevent teachers from transferring more responsibility to students? How it is connected with teachers’ own notion, believes and experience regarding metacognition and self-regulated learning? 100 schools in Latvia now are in the process of piloting new national curriculum, in those schools situation could be different. Research on the experience of piloting schools would be necessary to understand better 253Anda Priedite. Enhancing Students’ Metacognition in the Classroom the  challenges to implement metacognition and self-regulated learning in the classroom. References Alexander, P. A., Graham, S. & Harris, K. R. (1998). 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Education Endowment Foundation, London, 1–30. Ridley, D. S., Schutz, P. A., Glanz, R. S., & Weinstein, C. E. (1992). Self-regulated Learning: The  Interactive Influence of Metacognitive Awareness and Goal-setting. Journal of Experimental Education, 60(4), 293-306. Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting General Metacognitive Awareness. Instructional Science, 26, 113–125, Kluwer Academic Publishers, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033. Swartz, R. J. & Perkins, D. N. (1989). Teaching Thinking: Issues and Approaches. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publication. Winn, W., & Snyder D. (1996). Cognitive Perspectives in Psychology, The  Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 112–142. 254 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 CHARACTER GROWTH MINDSET ENHANCEMENT IN EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES: AN INTERNATIONAL STUDY Manuel Joaquín Fernández González University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT This paper is based on a  virtue education intervention implemented by faith-based NGOs from Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Sweden in July 2018, which focused on participants’ (N = 43) character growth mindset, i.e., the  believe that everyone, including oneself, can become a  better person. The  research question was: What impact does participation in a  one- week after school summer camp have on the  development of 10–15-year-old participants’ character growth mindset? The  research adopted quasi-experimental approach using pre-test and post-test questionnaires and interviews. The  intervention was found to have a  positive impact on participants’ character growth mindset, in particular regarding their perceived knowledge about how to become better persons and their belief that everybody can become a better person. Such extracurricular programs have the potential of enhancing children’s disposition and ‘know-how’ to grow in virtue. Keywords: Character growth mindset; Extracurricular activities; Moral education; Relational-self- of-virtue; Virtue growth. Introduction Pre-adolescence is a key period in moral identity development (Hart, & Fegley, 1995), because “early experiences seem to play a  pivotal role in the  formation of an ideological framework that encompasses issues of morality, which are closely affiliated to the  self” (Matsuba, & Walker, 2005, 294). Interventions in extra-curricular activities (Birdwell, & Wybron, 2014; Scott, Reynolds, & Cadywould, 2016), also called “co-curricular” (Arthur, Kristjánsson, Harrison, Sanderse, & Wright, 2017, 96), are closely linked to children’s character building (Harrison, Morris, & Ryan, 2016, 133–134). Many parents seek to develop children talents and personality during afterschool activities, adopting the so called “concerted cultivation” parenting style (Lareau, 2003; Vincent, & Maxwell, 2016). Several NGOs based on Christian values, which collaborate with parents in children education by organizing educational activities, are https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.17 Manuel Joaquín Fernández González Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... 255Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... willing to professionalize their voluntary work (Baumgart-Ochse, & Wolf, 2018; Boan, Aten, Greener, & Gailey, 2016). The  idea of this project was to collaborate with an international network of faith-based NGOs during a summer camp which provided participants leisure activities and Christian values education. The  aim of the  collaboration was twofold: enhancing NGO professionalization, and piloting and testing the impact of an original intervention in the field of virtue education. Constructive alignment theory (Biggs, 2011) was used for creating the  collaboration program, because its adaptability to short interventions like this one, contrarily to other existing models (e.g., Brunner’s spiral curriculum approach: see Wright, Morris, & Bawden, n.d., 7). Therefore, the intervention design was aligned with the definition of the educational goals and the  choice of evaluation methods. The  challenge was to define such a  goal that would contribute to children’s virtue development, and that could simultaneously be realistically addressed during an intervention whose results could be reached and measured in a short time (the length of a  summer camp). After joint discussion, considering that “ultimately, the  goal of character education, and all comprehensive and enlightened education, is for students to become better people” (Berkowitz, & Bustamante, 2013, 12), it was decided to focus on children’s understanding of the possibility of “becoming better persons”. Theoretical background Recently, the project “Character in Transition” showed that 10–12 years- old viewed the development of character and values as important to them (Arthur, Davison, See, & Knowles, 2009). The  theoretical background of the  intervention was the  concept of relational-self-of-virtue (Fernández González, 2019): the  personal deep disposition to virtue growth in communities of virtue. Four components interact in the  formation of a  relational-self-of-virtue: the  cognitive and emotional shaping of an ideal relational-self-of-virtue (including beliefs about character growth), the  commitment to relational virtue growth (conational component), involvement in virtue growth in communities of virtue (phronesis- guided behavioural component), and a  socially situated virtue identity (emotional-evaluative component). Due to time constraints, the  focus of the  intervention/evaluation was on the  cognitive-emotional component, concretely on: 1) character growth mindset (believing on the  possibility of improving character, for oneself and for others); and 2) character growth practical knowledge (knowing what to improve and how to do it). It should be noted that this kind of practical knowledge differs from the  virtue of phronesis, which, according to Aristotle, is a  judgement of 256 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the practical reason about what to do here and now. The cognitive aspects are particularly relevant in early moral development stages: “What is of greater importance is that children learn about the process of acquiring and developing virtue” (Harrison., Morris, & Ryan, 2016, 71). The research question guiding the  inquiry and the  design of the  intervention was: What impact does participation in a  one-week after school summer camp have on the  development of 10–15-year-old participants’ character growth ‘mindset’ and character growth ‘practical knowledge’ (know-how)? Description and implementation of the intervention The cognitive content of the intervention drew from the concept of “the drive to aspire” (Annas, 2011), including a Christian perspective: God’s help for developing virtue (Council, 1994, No. 2013). Considering that “to grow in understanding of how to act well” is also part of the  “virtue practice” area (Jubilee Centre, n.d., 6), during the intervention, a “daily topic” was decided in order to help children to focus on developing it during the day. The formulation of the daily topic was based on interpersonal competence (Park, Tsukayama, Goodwin, Patrick, & Duckworth, 2017) and on civic virtues (Jubilee Centre, 2017) (e.g., interpersonal self-control, cheerfulness, service, gratefulness). The intervention plan (including the  definition of its goal and contents) was designed jointly by the researcher and the NGO staff before the summer camp, resulting in a combination of “researcher-derived” and “practitioner-derived” program (Urban, Hargraves, & Trochim, 2014). It combined “taught” and “caught” elements. The “taught” elements included learning activities aligned with the  educational goal and the  evaluation methods (Biggs, 2011): a lecture about the daily topic (15 minutes per day, by country groups); individual “character growth coaching” (5–7 minutes, at the beginning and the end of the camp); and a daily guided reflection time (5  minutes, by country groups), in which 3 questions regarding the daily topic were read aloud with silent intervals; a “Character Growth Card” for personal use, (adapted from Duckworth, Tsukayama, & Patrick, 2014)1 containing 3–4 growth indicators for each daily topic; and the initial questionnaire, which familiarized children with the intervention topics. The  “caught” elements were: leaders’ and volunteers’ modelling; posters illustrating the  daily topic (renewed every morning); background 1 https://www.greatschoolspartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/ January2014CharacterGrowthCard.pdf 257Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... songs with related content during sports and games; and staff T-shirts with the  camp slogan (“Dare, Change, Grow!”). As an example, on day 3 the  topic was ‘Joy and good atmosphere’, the  slogan: ‘Good friends are happy friends!’, the  songs of the day were “Easy Love” (Sigala), “Waving flag” (WordCup-2018) and “Euro 2016”; and on day 4 the  topic was ‘spirit of service’, the  slogan was ‘Helping others is growing twice!’, and the songs of the day were “I’m here for you” (Kygo) and “Lay all on me” (The Rudimental). The intervention plan was informed by evidence drawn from different scientific sources. The  centrality of modelling in character education is widely accepted (e.g., Arthur et al., 2017, 102–104; Berkowitz, & Bustamante, 2013, 13–14). The  choice of short lectures and personal coaching was based on good results obtained in previous years and in recent research (Jubilee Centre, n.d., 10–11). “Time for personal reflection” (Arthur, & Harrison, 2014, 35) was included because “self-examination makes up an important component of ‘virtue practice’” (Wright, Morris, & Bawden, n.d., 10). Using posters is a widely used technique to “make character education visible” (Arthur, & Harrison, 2014, 34), and background music addressed the emotional component of the intervention. The draft of the intervention plan was discussed with the  organizers for “viable validity” (Chen, 2010), a  bottom-up approach to validity considering “practitioners’ views and experience regarding whether an intervention program is practical, affordable, suitable, evaluable, and helpful in the  real-world” (p.  207). Regarding the implementation of the intervention, it took place during the last week of July 2018 within a summer camp with 45 boys (10 to 15 y/o) from 4 countries (Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Sweden) at Malminharju (Heinola, Finland). The staff included 7 volunteers and 7 leaders from those countries. Leisure activities included sports, games, swimming and free time. The  good weather helped to have a  nice atmosphere. The  material aspects were well managed, as it was the 5th edition of the camp. Intervention materials (growth cards, posters, outlines of lectures, daily reflection questions and questionnaires) were prepared beforehand for sparing time during the  camp. Great importance was given to the  involvement of the  staff, to reinforce their ‘buy-in’ into the  project: before the  camp, the  staff translated intervention materials in their national language, developed the  lecture outlines, chose the  daily songs, and introduced changes in the  schedule proposal. On the  day of arrival, the researcher explained the staff again the  intervention goals and means and provided support materials (explanation of “character growth mindset” concept and a  list of “beliefs of growth mindset facilitator”). During the camp, leaders leaded the  lectures, coaching, and reflection times, and volunteers took care of posters, music, and leisure activities climate. 258 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Methodology Research methods. A  survey research design (Robson & McCartan, 2016, 243) was chosen for impact evaluation. Using mixed methods seemed the best way to answer the research question (Denscombe, 2014). The  voices of children and volunteers, and the  professional judgement of leaders were triangulated (Harrison, Arthur, & Burn., n.d., 17–18). Two different questionnaires for participants and leaders, and semi-structured interviews with volunteers were used. The  research instruments were designed in alignment with the intervention activities and the educational goals (Biggs, 2011). The research adopted a  quasi-experimental approach without control group (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011), using pre-test for baseline identification and post-test for measuring the  differences at the  end line. The hypothesis was that the intervention will make a difference in children’s character growth mindset and character growth practical knowledge. Research instruments. The pre-test questionnaire had 24 items addressing children’s mindset and practical knowledge about character growth. The  questionnaire had two sections: 9 “belief questions” (in a  5-point scale), and 15 “positioning statements” (in a 7-point scale). The questions addressing children growth mindset were adapted from the  “Character Growth Mindset Scale” (Dweck, 2000). The  questions addressing their “know-what” and “know-how” were based on the  interpersonal section of the  standardized “Character Growth Card” (Duckworth, Tsukayama, & Patrick, 2014) and were related to the “daily topics” that were decided for each day. On the 3rd day, the researcher shared with each country leader the pre-test findings for his country, and they discussed concrete “actions on the findings” (Harrison, Arthur, & Burn, n.d., 67). Even if the “feedback loop” (p. 17) was very short (there were only 4 days left till the  end of the  camp), it helped to adapt the  contents of the  remaining coaching sessions and daily lectures. The post-test was identical to the  pre-test, with some exceptions: an ambiguous question was slightly reformulated (item A6); a  final section asking participants to rate in a  7-point scale the  appropriateness of intervention activities was added; and 6 items whose pre-test average level was very high were removed (so, only 18 items were compared). The questionnaire for leaders included questions about the  impact of the  intervention on children’s beliefs (7 items in 5-point scale, parallel to the  first section of the  post-test) and about the  perceived effectiveness of intervention activities (7 items, 7-point scale, parallel to the  final section of post-test). The  interview schedule addressed volunteers’ motivations, preparation, understanding of the  central idea of the  camp, received 259Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... support, perceived personal improvement and respondents’ suggestions for the future. Data collection and analysis. The researcher leaded the pre-test in the bus of the camp during the  last part of the trip (Helsinki – Maminharju), and the post-test in the participants’ lodgement right at the  end of the  camp, for avoiding external contamination of results. The  average time for completing each questionnaire was 12–15 minutes. Leaders’ questionnaires were collected 2 to 5 days after the  camp by email. The  data were analysed using SPSS 21. The  data set reliability was high (Cronbach’s Alpha =  .939). The Shapiro-Wilk test of normality, appropriate for small sample size (n < 50), showed that data were non-normally distributed, so non-parametric tests were used in the analysis. Interviews with volunteers lasted 8–10 minutes each, and they were done the  last day of the  camp. They were audio-taped, transcriber and analysed using MS Word software. Research limitations and ethical considerations Limitations of the research. Reliance on participants self-report is a major limitation of the  study (Duckworth, & Yeager, 2015). Triangulation of children’s, volunteers’ and leaders’ voices, which intended enhance reliability, was still based on their subjective views. However, “given the  nature of ‘virtue’, there is really only one person who can say with any confidence whether they feel they are growing as a person…– and that is the student alone” (Wright, Morris, & Bawden, n.d., 18). During interviews and in open questions, staff mentioned randomly observed children behaviours supporting their views, but these were not structured and reliable observations. The reliability of impact evaluation based in pre-post-test is limited because both questionnaires were not exactly identical. Moreover, “the  correlation may be spuriously affected by the  candidate’s memory of having taken the  same test a  short time ago” (Arthur, Waring, Coe, & Hedges, 2012, 50; Duckworth, & Yeager, 2015). However, after a week full of different activities, probably children did not remember exactly how they rated the questions initially. Other limits were the  absence of a  control group, the  lack of time perspective to know how persistent the  acquired knowledge will be, and social desirability bias, particularly strong at those ages. Collecting pre- test data at the end of the trip was convenient, but children who travelled longer were probably tired. In addition, the  proximity of the  end may have affected children concentration during the  post-test. The  “purity of the  intervention” (Duckworth, & Yeager, 2015) was quite high, because of the absence of external social interaction, excepting participants’ phone call to their parents. However, conversations among children and other 260 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 possible internal factors might have had an influence on children answers. In reasons of these limits, and of the reduced sample, the research findings are not generalizable. Ethical considerations. Country leaders sent parents/guardians the research summary, requesting their consent for children participation. Children informed consent was also requested, and only those who wanted freely participated. Two children decided not to participate. For confidentiality reasons, analysis was done at group level, not individual level. For matching pre-test and post-test, each questionnaire had a confidential participant code known only by the researcher. Interview transcripts contained participants’ pseudonyms. A summary of the findings was sent to the leaders for further action improving the  next editions of the  camp and for enhancing staff’s professional development (Harrison, Arthur, & Burn., n.d., 18). Findings 43 children participated in the  research. Half of them were from Estonia (N = 23, 53.5%), and the  rest were quite equally distributed between Latvia, Finland and Sweden. Children were between 10 and 15.5 y/o (Mean  =  12,8). We present below the  results for the  sections “belief questions” and “positioning statements” of children questionnaires, commenting the findings on the light of the leaders’ and volunteers’ views. Regarding changes in children’s beliefs in the  section “questions”, see in Figure 1 the pre- and post-test results (in a 5-point scale). Figure 1. Character growth mindset “beliefs”: Pre-test, post-test, Mean differences 261Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... In both the pre-test and post-test, the questions A2 (“Do you think that you have the desire of becoming a better person?”) and A6 (“Do you think that everybody can become a  better person?”) were rated the  highest, but the  lowest rated was A9 (“Do you know how to help your friends to become better persons?”). Comparing pre-test and post-test, the mean for each question was slightly higher after intervention. The lowest increment was in questions A9 (Mean increase: +0.16 in 5-point scale) and A8 (“Do you think that you can help your friends to improve as persons?”: +0,17), both related to helping others. The  biggest increment was in questions A6 (+0.88, maybe due to its reformulation in the post-test) and A5 (“Do you know how to improve your personality?”: +0.50). The relatively low increments observed in all criteria could be due to chance. For testing their statistical significance, the nonparametric Wilcoxon (paired) signed- rank test was the  most appropriate (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011), because it was possible to match each student’s pre-test and post-test scores. Statistically significant differences were found only in criteria A5 (p = .008) and A6 (p = .002). Triangulating the  changes found on children’s beliefs (see Figure  1, column “Difference”) with leaders’ opinions about the  impact of the  intervention on children beliefs (see Table 1), it was found that, for both of them, the  highest impact (change) was on criterium A6, and the lowest one – on criteria A8 and A9. There was no coincidence of data about criteria A5 (for children it was the 2nd biggest change, but for leaders it came in 4th–5th place). Table 1. Intervention impact on participants’ growth mindset change: Leaders’ opinions ¿Do you think that the intervention helped the children… Mean (5-point scale) S.D. A2 …to increase their desire of becoming a better person? 4.0 .58 A3 …to understand better that they need help for improving them- selves? 3.9 .69 A4 …to know better what they should improve to become a better person? 4.0 .82 A5 …to know more concretely how to improve their personality? 3.9 .69 A6 …to understand better that everybody can become a better person? 4.4 .53 A8 …to understand better that they can help their friends to im- prove as persons? 3.4 .79 A9 …to know more concretely how to help their friends to become better persons? 3.0 .82 262 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Regarding changes in children (dis-)agreement with the given statements about how to become a better person, see in Figure 2 the  comparison of pre-test and post-test results. Figure 2. Character growth “know-how”: Pre-test, post-test, Mean differences In both pre-test and post-test, children’s highest agreement was with statement B13 (“When I help others and serve them with joy, I become a better person”), and the lowest – with B3 (“Without God’s help I cannot improve myself at all”). Comparing pre-test and post-test, the  mean for each statement was also slightly higher after intervention, except for the statement B2 (“For becoming a better person, I absolutely need to make efforts and to ask God for help”), in which the post-test was slightly lower (Mean decrease: -0.24 in a  7-point scale). The  biggest increment was in statements B6 (“When I make efforts to smile and to be cheerful, I become a better person and I help others to become better persons”: +0.54) and B14 (“To pray helps me very much to become a better person”: +0.47). These differences were not statistically significant (B6: p = .076; B14: p = .160). Summarizing, it seems that children participating in the intervention had a  (not statistically significant) tendency to demonstrate higher character growth mindset and practical knowledge in the post-test. Discussion The high impact of the  intervention on participants’ conviction that making efforts to be cheerful helps them and their friends to become 263Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... better persons (item B6) has a  particular resonance with the  theory of the  relational-self-of-virtue (Fernández González, 2019). Cultivating a  relational-self-of-virtue implies a  particular kind of motivation, i.e., growing in virtue for the  sake of others, in order to help them better to grow in virtue and to establish more caring relations with them. In addition, according to this theory, caring for others’ growth in virtue is a privileged way of developing one’s own full potential for virtue growth. On the  other hand, the  low impact observed in other relational criteria, such as knowing how to help others (A8 and A9), thinking about others (B8) and forgiving others (B12), indicates that children need guidance to develop this aspect of the  relational-self-of-virtue. This finding could indicate that caring for others is a characteristic feature of latter stages of moral development. This confirms the Aristotelian theory of the five stages of moral development as described by the Jubilee Centre (Jubilee Centre, n.d., 7–9): the  feature “I can actively help to build up others in virtue” corresponds to the Stage 5 of moral development, whereas the intervention addressed rather a feature corresponding to the Stage 1, namely: “to rethink the strength of commitment to character growth”. Overall, the intervention had a positive impact on participants’ character growth mindset, in particular regarding their perceived knowledge about how to become better persons (A5) and their conviction that everybody can become a better person (A6). In their interviews, the volunteers discussed some aspect that in their opinion enhanced the impact of the intervention. One of them was the centrality of the example of the staff and volunteers, and of young participants themselves. In an open question, a  leader commented on the  relevance of good example: “I think that youngest boys involve in becoming better persons when they are inspired by their own friends and by youngsters who are just a bit older than them” (a leader). This confirms that “we develop virtues almost by accident… through observing how others live and emulating or rejecting how they go about life.” (Jubilee Centre, n.d., 3). Young volunteers’ modelling was particularly effective, because they were “near peers” to the children (Harrison, Morris, & Ryan 2016, 147). Their work corresponded to the  highest level (‘enhancing’) indicators of the  ‘School Ethos Self-Evaluation Framework’ (see section “Whole School Community” in Harrison, Arthur, & Burn, n.d., 32 and 57): they all were aware of the  focus of the  intervention, integrate it into the  context of activities, purposefully modelled the  behaviours expected by the camp ethos, and actively acted as role models to the children, who accepted them as such. However, for some volunteers it was hard to say if the  intervention really helped the children: “I helped in specific situations, but I do not know if a  specific situation really helps. I mean, you need to do things multiple 264 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 times before you really improve” (a volunteer). Most of them believed they somehow helped the  children to understand the  main idea of the  camp: “I  think yes [it helped], because…they are still kids, and when they lose they get discouraged, complain, start bordering their colleagues... these are very good occasions to help them to think that they should be kind and help those who are not so skilled” (a volunteer). As one of the  leaders summarized: “I do not think that the  research itself… marked a  difference. However, the  good preparation of the contents of the intervention, and the good example they saw, has certainly helped children to grow, even if it is not quantifiable” (a leader). Finally, all leaders stressed that the intervention helped to professionalize their work, which was one of the goals of the collaboration: “definitively, it was a step forward… it was very good to have an integrated educational plan that embrace everything” (a leader), and “the parents perceived it in a  very positive way” (a leader). Conclusion and recommendations Building on two emotional-cognitive aspects of relational-self-of- virtue theory (character growth ‘mindset’ and character growth ‘practical knowledge’), this intervention aimed at helping children to understand better that everyone can improve his/her character (including themselves), and to improve their practical knowledge about what to improve and how to do it. The intervention contained “taught” and “caught” elements, including group lectures and reflection time, individual coaching, an adapted “Character Growth Card”, visual materials and, most important, the modelling of a team of 14 leaders and young volunteers highly identified with the  formative goal of the  intervention. The  intervention impact was evaluated through the  voices of children, volunteers and leaders, using triangulation of quantitative (questionnaires) and qualitative (interviews, open questions) methods. The  intervention had a  relative positive impact on children’s character growth mindset and practical knowledge, in particular on their opinions about the possibility for everyone to become a better person. This pilot intervention contributed to professionalize the  NGOs work, and its implementation and assessment procedures could be used in future similar camps. Considering the limits of the study, some recommendations for next steps were put forward: This study relied mostly on participants’ self-reports; therefore, for enhancing reliability, using observations and moral dilemmas could be advisable in the future. More separation between pre-test and post-test, for example during a semester, could provide stronger evidence about the  impact of the  intervention. Using a  control group in a future research could be useful for enhancing reliability. A longitudinal 265Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... study for controlling the  persistence of the  learned lessons over time (6 months or more) would be necessary. It could be concluded that such a  program, with the  necessary improvements, might probably enhance children’s sustainable under- standing of the  possibility of growing in virtue and how to do it, which could motivate them to develop further their own character, and to help their friends to do so. Acknowledgements Project financed by the  European Regional Development Fund. Postdoctoral project number 1.1.1.2/VIAA/1/16/071. References Annas, J. (2011). Intelligent Virtue. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Arthur, J., Davison, J., See, B. & Knowles, C. (2009). Character in Transition – Consistency in Values: The Transition from Primary to Secondary School. Not Known. https://research. birmingham.ac.uk/portal/files/2920384/Character_in_transition_full_report_with_cover. pdf (05.06.2019). Arthur, J., & Harrison, T. (2014). Schools of Character. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. https://www.jubileecentre. ac.uk/userfiles/jubileecentre/pdf/character-education/SchoolsOfCharacterPDF.pdf (05.06.2019). Arthur, J., Kristjánsson, K., Harrison, T., Sanderse, W., & Wright, D. (2017). Teaching Character and Virtue in Schools. London: Routledge. Arthur, J., Waring, M., Coe, R., & Hedges, L. (2012). Research Methods & Methodologies in Education. London: Sage. Baumgart-Ochse, C., & Wolf, K. D. (2018). Conclusions: Religious NGOs: Mediators between Distinctiveness and Alignment. In: C. Baumgart-Ochse, & D. Wolf (Eds.), Religious NGOs at the United Nations (pp. 198–208). London: Routledge. Berkowitz, M. W., & Bustamante, A. (2013). Using Research to Set Priorities for Character Education in Schools: A  Global Perspective. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, Special Issue, 7–20. Biggs, J. B. (2011). Teaching for Quality Learning at University: What the  Student Does. London: McGraw-Hill Education. Birdwell, J., & Wybron, I. (2014). Scouting for Skills. London: DEMOS. www.demos. co.uk/publications/scoutingforskills (05.06.2019). Boan, D. M., Aten, J., Greener, S., & Gailey, R. (2016). The Well-Prepared International Development Worker. Missiology, 44(4), 430–447. Chen, H. (2010). The Bottom-Up Approach to Integrative Validity: A New Perspective for Program Evaluation. Evaluation and Program Planning, 33(3), 205–214. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research Methods in Education. 7th ed. London: Routledge. 266 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Council, S. V. E. (1994). Catechism of the Catholic Church. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. http://www.vatican.va/archive/eng0015/_index.htm (05.06.2019). Denscombe, M. (2014). The  Good Research Guide. 5th ed. Berkshire: Open University Press. Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Measurement Matters: Assessing Personal Qualities other than Cognitive Ability for Educational Purposes. Educational Researcher, 44(4), 237–251. Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & Patrick, S. D. (2014). A  Tripartite Taxonomy of Character. In: Annual Meeting of the  American Educational Research Association, April 3–7 2017, Philadelphia, PA. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Angela_ Duckworth2/publication/280529814_A_tripartite_taxonomy_of_character/links/ 55b7905208aed621de046a66.pdf (05.06.2019). Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Fernández González, M. J. (2019). At the  Heart of Virtue Growth: ‘Self-of- Virtue’ and ‘Virtue Identity’. Estudios sobre Educacion 36, 9–29. https://doi. org/10.15581/004.36.9-29. Harrison, T., Arthur, J., & Burn, E. (n.d.). Character Education: Evaluation Handbook for Schools. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. https://www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/1721/character-education (05.06.2019). Harrison, T., Morris, I., & Ryan J. (2016). Teaching Character in the Primary Classroom. London: Sage. Hart, D., & Fegley, S. (1995). Prosocial Behavior and Caring in Adolescence: Relations to Self-Understanding and Social Judgment. Child Development, 66, 1346–1359. Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. (2017) A Framework for Character Education in Schools. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. http://jubileecentre.ac.uk/userfiles/jubileecentre/pdf/character-education/ Framework%20for%20Character%20Education.pdf (05.06.2019). Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. (n.d). Primary Programme of Study – Teachers’ guide. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. https://www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/userfiles/jubileecentre/pdf/Primary%20 Programme%20of%20Study/Primary_Teacher’s_Guide.pdf (05.06.2019). Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal Childhoods. Berkley: University of California Press. Matsuba, M. K., & Walker, L. J. (2005). Young Adult Moral Exemplars: The Making of Self through Stories. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15(3), 275–297. Park, D., Tsukayama, E., Goodwin, G. P., Patrick, S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2017). A  Tripartite Taxonomy of Character: Evidence for Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Intellectual Competencies in Children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 16–27. Robson, C., & McCartan, K. (2016). Real World Research. Chichester: John Riley and Sons Ltd. Scott, R., Reynolds, L., & Cadywould, C. (2016). Character by Doing: Evaluation. London: Demos. 267Manuel Joaquín Fernández González. Character Growth Mindset Enhancement ... Urban, J. B., Hargraves, M., & Trochim, W. M. (2014). Evolutionary Evaluation: Implications for Evaluators, Researchers, Practitioners, Funders and the Evidence–Based Program Mandate. Evaluation and Program Planning, 45, 127–139. Vincent, C., & Maxwell, C. (2016). Parenting Priorities and Pressures: Furthering Understanding of ‘Concerted Cultivation’. Discourse: Studies in the  Cultural Politics of Education, 37(2), 269–281. Wright, D., Morris, I., & Bawden, M. (n.d.) Character Education: A Taught Course for 11 to 16 Year Olds – Teacher’s Guide. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. https://www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/userfiles/jubileecentre/pdf/ TaughtCourse/TC-teachers-guide.pdf (05.06.2019). 268 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TEACHER TRAINEES’ EXPERIENCES OF INCLUSIVE PRACTICES DURING TEACHING PRACTICE William Nketsia Western Sydney University, Australia Maxwell Peprah Opoku University of Tasmania, Australia Eric Lawer Torgbenu University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ghana ABSTRACT Teaching practice has been found to significantly improve teacher trainees’ understanding of special educational needs (SEN) and knowledge of inclusive teaching practices. Using a descriptive survey design and a purposive sample of final-year teacher trainees (n = 171), college supervisors (n  =  57) and school-based mentors (n  =  77) from three public colleges of education in Ghana, this study explored teacher trainees’ experiences regarding the inclusive practices they learnt, their collaboration with stakeholders and the challenges they encountered during teaching practice. The  study reveals that teaching practice does not adequately promote inclusive practical training of teacher trainees and that mentors do not model effective inclusive practices for trainees. The  study found an immeasurably small number of co-teaching practices among trainees. The implications of the findings for the  improvement of teaching practice in effectively training teachers in areas of SEN and inclusive education in colleges of education are also discussed. Keywords: Inclusive education, Inclusive practices, Teaching practice, Teacher trainees. Introduction The participants of the  World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal (26–28 April 2000), established that it is the human right of all children, young people and adults to benefit from an education that is capable of meeting their basic needs in the  best and fullest sense of the  term, an education that includes learning to know, to do, to live together and to be (UNESCO, 2000). To achieve these goals, the participants promised to create a safe, healthy, inclusive and equitably resourced educational environment https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.18 William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu Teacher Trainees’ ... 269William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... that is conducive to the learning and achievement of all children. Inclusive education has been described in the  Salamanca Statement as “regular education with child-centred pedagogy capable of meeting the  special needs of pupils” (UNESCO, 1994, p. 5). Inclusive education aims to transform schools by eliminating all forms of discrimination, so as to offer quality education for all, while respecting and celebrating diversity in relation to the  learning needs, abilities and characteristics of all students. It is about schools creating inclusive cultures, producing inclusive policies and evolving inclusive practices (Ainscow et al., 2006). Building on international declarations as well as national commitments – such as sections of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana, the Education Strategic Plans of 2003–2015 and 2010–2020 and the National Development Agenda to achieve Education for All  – Ghana has adopted inclusive education within the  framework of Universal Design for Learning as a  strategy to address the diverse learning needs of all students. The policy seeks to attain inclusive education for all persons with to and severe SEN at all levels of education (Ministry of Education, 2015). Hence, several studies and reports (e.g. Alhassan, 2014; Ministry of Education, 2015; Singal et al., 2015) have confirmed that, due to the limited provision of special education facilities and in line with the policy of inclusive education, a majority of students with SEN are attending mainstream schools. This finding is consistent with other studies from sub-Saharan African countries (Arbeiter & Hartley, 2002; Sawhney, 2015). However, similar reports and studies have also established that, due to certain barriers, students with SEN in mainstream settings are largely ignored and denied active participation in the  classroom (Casely- Hayford et al., 2013; Sawhney, 2015). Meanwhile, inclusive education involves valuing, supporting and increasing the  full participation of all students within the  cultures, curricula and communities of mainstream educational settings (Ainscow et al., 2006; Dyson, 2014). Barriers to the  implementation of inclusive education include inaccessible school buildings, lack of appropriate facilities in schools, lack of appropriate teaching and learning materials, lack of extra support in the  classroom for children with disabilities, social stigma and negative societal attitudes to disability and poverty. In addition, inadequate teacher training has been identified as another key barrier to the  implementation of inclusive education in Ghana and other African countries (Agbenyega & Deku, 2011; Alhassan, 2014; Alhassan & Abosi, 2014: Le Fanu, 2013). Studies have also found that initial teacher education programmes do not adequately equip teachers with the  knowledge and skills required for inclusive practices (Nketsia, Saloviita, & Gyimah, 2016; Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). Hence, mainstream classroom teachers lack the  requisite knowledge and skills to 270 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 adequately address the special needs of students in mainstream classrooms. The dominant instructional approaches adopted by mainstream classroom teachers generally take the  form of teachers asking questions and writing on chalkboards, with students passively listening, writing and shouting out answers (Le Fanu, 2013; Sawhney, 2015). This raises critical questions with respect to the  adequacy of initial teacher education programmes, especially the  teaching practice component, to effectively equip trainees with inclusive practices. Inclusive practices are the  actions that teachers take to give meaning to the concept of inclusion; they are the practices that respond to the diversity among learners (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Studies have shown that a  lack of inclusive practices results in the  social isolation and marginalization of students in inclusive settings (Sawhney, 2015) and that their adoption have yielded positive results (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Globally, initial teacher training has been found to play a  crucial role in preparing teachers to successfully implement inclusive education (Arbeiter & Hartley, 2002; Dart, 2006; Florian & Rouse, 2009). This important role has been emphasized in several international documents, such as UNESCO’s Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education (2009) and the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Collectively, these documents agreed that pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes should adopt inclusive education approaches and materials in order to equip prospective teachers with the  appropriate inclusive skills, knowledge, attitudes and pedagogical capacities to enable them to address the diverse learning needs of different categories of learners. In an attempt to prepare teachers for inclusive settings, different initial teacher education programmes have added one or two separate SEN courses to equip teacher trainees with the  appropriate knowledge, skills and competencies to be effective inclusive teachers (Sharma et al., 2008; Strawderman & Lindsey, 1995; Welch, 1996). However, some studies have established that one or two SEN courses are inadequate to provide teacher trainees with the  necessary knowledge for the  expected roles, functions and responsibilities required of inclusive education settings (Jelas, 2010; Wolfberg et al., 2009). Globally, many of these courses have been found to provide limited knowledge on SEN and inclusive pedagogical skills and have lacked focus on practical issues (Dart, 2006; Lawson et al., 2013; Nash & Norwich, 2010; Tungaraza, 2014). Consequently, trainees and qualified teachers have expressed feelings of ill-preparedness with regard to dealing with SEN and disability issues within inclusive classrooms (Chhabra et al., 2010; Lambe & Bones, 2006; Lawson et al., 2013; Sawhney, 2011; Sharma et al., 2008). The  evidence suggests that higher education-based training and education alone do not 271William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... result in professional reflection (Nash & Norwich, 2010). The  creation of classroom settings that are inclusive of all students requires the  training of  regular education teachers in receiving adequate knowledge and high- level exposure to theory and practice regarding how to address the diverse needs of students with SEN. To address the aforementioned shortcomings of the one to two SEN courses in initial teacher education, many researchers have recommended that trainees be provided not only with theoretical knowledge but also with school placement opportunities in inclusive settings to effectively develop their attitudes towards disabilities as well as skills to enable them to address the special needs of all students (Dart, 2006; Lambe, 2007). Indeed, several studies have identified school-based learning (teaching practice) as a relevant aspect of teacher education and training for inclusive education (Dart, 2006; Florian & Rouse, 2009; Lawson et al., 2013; McIntyre, 2009; Nash & Norwich, 2010). These studies have established that well-structured teaching practices or field-based experiences can effectively improve trainees’ knowledge and understanding about SEN and inclusive education practices. One key feature of such teaching practices is that trainees spend more time in school placement, thus shifting some of the responsibilities of their knowledge development regarding issues of SEN and inclusion to placement schools. Teaching practice includes innovative structured fieldwork approaches, such as the  involvement of a  practical teaching task that is SEN- and student-focused, though it does not focus on practical teaching (Lawson et al., 2013; Strawderman & Lindsey, 1995). These planned tasks are designed to enable trainees to engage in direct teaching experience with an individual learner with identified SEN under the  supervision of a  SEN coordinator in order to significantly improve trainees’ knowledge and understanding about SEN and inclusive practices (Dart, 2006; Lawson et al., 2013; Nash & Norwich, 2010). So far, it is not known whether the one-year teaching practice in the colleges of education in Ghana includes planned practical tasks with an individual or group of students with identified SEN or provides school-based formative, reflective and assessment tasks to promote critical reflection among student teachers. Moreover, studies have shown that the  teaching practices of trainees during school-based placement are mostly determined by their mentors and that these mentors can prevent them from innovatively practicing what they were taught in their initial teacher education programme (Angelides et al., 2006). Therefore, to effectively adopt teaching practice as an approach to equip teacher trainees with knowledge and understanding about SEN and inclusive practices, placement schools and mentors must be carefully selected. Placement schools must have quality inclusive education provisions, training support systems and well-trained mentors who can 272 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 provide trainees with quality SEN and inclusive training (Nash & Norwich, 2010). Schools which support inclusive education promote positive attitudes among its teachers. Moreover, the mentoring of newly qualified teachers under the  supervision of experienced teachers with an inclusive philosophy has positive implications for inclusive teacher education. This enables teacher trainees to develop a  commitment to inclusion (Forlin, 2010, p. 251). However, it is unclear what impact the  one-year teaching practice has on trainees and the knowledge and understanding of SEN and inclusive practices they are exposed to by mentors. Mentoring creates opportunities for teachers’ voices to be heard and provides a  bridge between theory and practice; above all, it allows for the  co-construction of knowledge between newly trained teachers and mentors to create a community of practice to support each other through informal professional learning, which is an important component of teacher education (West, 2010). Such experiential learning opportunities and mentorship have been found to be effective in preparing teachers to apply their new knowledge in classrooms (West et al., 2006) and can significantly promote teacher training in inclusive education (EADSNE, 2012). For this to become a  reality, teacher education programmes must work in strong partnership with placement schools on practical activities for teacher training on SEN and inclusive education (McIntyre, 2009). Apart from the nature and quality of the partnership arrangement between initial teacher education programmes and partner schools, the  quality of training that student teachers receive in their partner schools also depends on the  clarity of the  responsibilities and the  communication between the partners (Nash & Norwich, 2010). Furthermore, West (2010) considered opportunities for collaboration, consultation and problem solving across common educational environments as other essential elements of teaching practice in the effective training of teacher trainees. Thus, trainees and beginning teachers should be given opportunities to work collaboratively with stakeholders to build their confidence, knowledge and skills. Such collaboration with mentors, fellow trainees and parents has been found to influence trainees’ guidance in their teaching more so than collaboration with their college lecturers and tutors (Clarke et al., 2012). Currently, the  nature of trainee collaboration with other stakeholders during teaching practice is unknown. Teaching practice in Ghana’s colleges of education The three-year teacher education diploma programme for basic school teachers in Ghana follows an ‘in-in-out’ scheme in which trainees spend the  first two years in the  college carrying out course work. They then 273William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... spend their final year in a  basic school classroom teaching, acquiring practical classroom experience and developing teaching competencies with the  support of in-service teachers (mentors) and college-based teacher educators (supervisors). During teaching practice, trainees prepare weekly lesson plans, which are evaluated by their supervisors. Supervisors also embark on a series of scheduled visits to observe and examine lessons and to provide feedback (Akyeampong et al., 2012). Ghana’s recent inclusive education policy emphasizes the  training of pre-service and in-service teachers in inclusive education to enable them to identify and respond to the needs of each child, promote diversity in the  classroom and make schools’ curricula, assessment procedures, teaching and learning materials accessible and fair for all learners (Ministry of Education, 2015). However, it is not clear the  extent to which the  teaching practice component of the  pre-service teacher training promotes the  training of pre-service and in-service teachers in inclusive education to enable them to identify and respond to the  needs of each child. Therefore, the  specific objective of this survey was to determine trainees’ experiences of SEN and inclusive practices during teaching practice. The study set out to determine: 1. The main activities mentees performed during teaching practice 2. Inclusive practices trainees learned during teaching practice 3. Mentees’ collaboration with other stakeholders during teaching practice 4. The challenges faced by mentees in addressing SEN among pupils during teaching practice. Methodology Study Participants The participants comprised 171 final-year teacher trainees (mentees), 57 college course tutors (supervisors) and 77 school-based practicing teachers (mentors) from three public colleges of education in Ghana. For the  purpose of the  study, participants with particular characteristics were of highest interest to the  study; the  supervisors were college course tutors who were involved in teaching practice supervision; the  mentors were school-based practicing teachers who were responsible for mentoring the final-year teacher trainees in the placement schools; and the mentees were the final-year teacher trainees on teaching practice. A description of the participants’ demographics is presented in Table 1. All the  mentees had completed a  course on SEN, had their teaching practice in a  mainstream basic school and indicated that they identified pupils with disabilities and SEN during their teaching practice. According to the  mentors, the  number of pupils with SEN in their various classes 274 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ranged from 1 to 10 (M = 2.03, SD = 1.51). The sizes of the classrooms taught by the trainees ranged from 30 to 100 (M = 51.22, SD = 15.58). Table 1. Description of participants Partici- pants N Return Rates Gender % Age Qualifications % % Male Female Range M Certifi- cate A Diplo- ma De- gree MA/ MPhil Mentees 171 63 57 43 23–33 26.8 - - Supervisors 57 38 75 25 28–61 45.0 - 1 25 74 Mentors 77 57 61 39 23–61 40.1 10 43 45 2 Instruments The aim of this study was to explore the  final-year teacher trainees’ experiences during teaching practice. Hence, the  quantitative descriptive survey design employed involved the  administration of a  written questionnaire that mainly consisted of open or free-response questions (Oppenheim, 1992; Pallant, 2016). The  questionnaire was designed from previous studies on initial teacher preparation in enabling teachers to meet the  needs of students with disabilities (see e.g. Clarke et al., 2012: Dart, 2006; Forlin, 2010; Lawson et al., 2013; Nash & Norwich 2008, 2010; West, 2010). A draft of the questionnaire was reviewed by two academics outside the research team, who had research interest in teacher preparation for inclusive education, to ensure that relevant data were collected to address the research questions. The final draft was tried on twenty teacher trainees from a  college of education that was not included in the  study. The  questionnaires were then amended based on the  pilot report before the data collection. The questionnaire consisted of two main sections for all the respondents of the  three different surveys. Section A  elicited information on the respondents’ backgrounds (e.g. age, gender, qualifications, completion of SEN course, etc.). Section B consisted of a varied range of closed- and open-ended questionnaire items. One dichotomous question with response options (1  =  Yes, 2  =  No) required mentees to indicate whether they collaborated among themselves as mentees and with others during teaching practice. The  open-ended questionnaire items requested all participants (mentees, mentors and supervisors) to describe the  main activities that mentees performed during their teaching practice. Another open-ended item requested mentees and supervisors to describe assignments provided during the one-year teaching practice, which encouraged mentees to reflect on how to address the diverse learning needs of pupils. Also, the mentees 275William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... were asked to describe the  best inclusive practices they learned during teaching practice, their collaboration with others and among themselves and the main challenges they encountered as far as addressing the special needs of pupils was concerned. Further, mentees who had the opportunity to observe the  lesson delivery of their mentors were asked to describe the  main instructional strategies used by the  mentors during lesson delivery. The mentors were also asked to indicate the number of students with SEN in their class. Data collection procedure Due to the  wide geographical spread of the  placement schools, three colleges of education were conveniently selected on the  basis of their familiarity, accessibility and proximity to the  first author. They included College A  situated in the  Western Region, College B in the  Central Region and College C in the Ashanti Region. A letter was then sent to all the  principals of the  selected colleges to seek their permission to collect the data. Following their consent, the first author contacted the  teaching practice coordinators, the  head teachers of the  placement schools and the lead mentees to inform them about the study and sought their assistance with mentee recruitment. The first author personally delivered 200 survey questionnaires to mentees, 100 to mentors and another 100 to supervisors in all the accessible placement schools. To assure the participants of their confidentiality and anonymity, all the  questionnaires contained cover letters explicitly explaining the purpose of the research and requiring them not to indicate their names or that of their colleges. The participants were also informed that the  completion of the  survey implied their consent to participate in the study and that they were free to withdraw at any time. In all the schools visited during the data collection, two mentees were assigned to one mentor; therefore, they shared a classroom with the mentor. Data analysis The data obtained were analysed in two phases. First, the  responses to the  closed-ended questions were entered into the  IBM SPSS Statistics Program  25. Simple frequency and percentage analyses were used in the analysis of the demographic data and the responses to the dichotomous question, which required mentees to indicate whether they collaborated among themselves during teaching practice. Second, coding frames were developed for each open-ended question (Oppenheim, 1992; Pallant, 2016). A  convenient number of twenty questionnaires from the  mentees and ten questionnaires each from the mentors and supervisors were used to develop the coding frame for each of the open-ended questions. Thus, each of the open- ended questions was copied on a  separate Microsoft Word document, as 276 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 they appeared in the  questionnaire, followed by all the  responses to that question. Each answer was preceded by the case number. Bearing in mind the  aims of the  study and the  specific purpose of the  question under consideration, the  first and second authors coded the  selected questionnaires independently, followed by a  discussion and resolution of the differences between them to eliminate inconsistencies and ambiguities. The first author then used the agreed coding frames to code all the  responses to the open-ended questions by highlighting and coding the specific segments of the responses. The first and second authors agreed on the themes under which to present the codes and the response segments to be extracted for analysis. The first author proceeded to write the first draft of the  analysis, which was read and accepted by all the  authors. Some of the  major themes were assigned a  numerical code and entered into the  IBM SPSS Statistics Program 25, together with the  quantitative data. The  results were presented using simple percentages and frequency distribution tables. Results The main activities mentees performed during teaching practice The mentees, mentors and supervisors were asked to describe the main activities that mentees performed during teaching practice. Seven broad themes emerged from the  analysis: the  preparation of lesson notes, preparation of teaching and learning materials, classroom teaching and learning, the management of student behaviour in the classroom, taking part in extracurricular activities and assessing students’ academic performance. Observation of the delivery of lessons by mentors was mentioned by very few mentees (13%). Table 2 below summarises the broad themes. Table 2. The main activities mentees performed during teaching practice Main Activities Mentees % Supervisors % Mentors % Preparation of lesson notes 99 65 86 Classroom teaching and learning 88 95 91 Management of student behaviour in classroom 69 51 84 Taking part in extracurricular activities 79 70 82 Assessing of student academic performance 82 65 78 Preparation of teaching materials 100 63 70 Observing the delivery of lessons by mentors 13 277William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... Inclusive practices mentees learned during teaching practice The mentees were asked to list some of the  best inclusive practices they learnt during their teaching practice, from which 12 major themes emerged, including writing boldly on the  chalkboard (66%), speaking louder (61%), code switching (60%), questions and answers (56%), seating arrangements (50%), the  use of teaching and learning materials (46%), the  use of practical activities (45%) and revision of relevant previous knowledge (19%). However, only few mentees mentioned collaboration with parents (18%), cooperative learning (15%), collaboration with other stakeholders (14%) and the use of mixed-ability grouping (13%). Table 3 below summarizes the responses. The next question asked the  mentees to indicate whether they had an opportunity to observe the  lesson delivery of their mentors during teaching practice and to list some of the  teaching methods/instructional strategies most commonly used by their mentors. Only few mentees (12%) indicated that they had an opportunity to observe their mentors’ lessons. The instructional strategies most commonly used by the observed mentors included lectures (62%), exchange of ideas among teacher and students through discussion (62%), demonstration (56%), asking and answering questions (49%), practical activities to engage student (33%), generating and gathering ideas through brainstorming (31%), role play (27%) and the discovery method (18%). Table 3. The inclusive practices learnt by mentees during teaching practice Inclusive Practices Trainees (N=171) % Writing boldly on the chalkboard 66 Speaking louder for everyone to hear 61 Code switching to ensure understanding 60 The use of questions and answers to engage students 56 Arrangement of seats 50 The use of Teaching and learning Materials 46 Engaging students in practical activities 45 Revising relevant previous knowledge 19 Collaborating with parents 18 Cooperative learning 15 Collaboration with other stakeholders 14 Mixed ability grouping 13 278 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Mentees’ collaboration during teaching practice The mentees were then asked to indicate whether they engaged in collaboration among themselves as mentees and with other stakeholders during teaching practice and to describe how they collaborated. Almost all of them (95%) indicated that they had collaborated. The  coding yielded nine categories, all of which were related to their collaboration among themselves. Therefore, all the categories were organized under an umbrella theme ‘mentees’ collaboration among themselves’. The mentees collaborated by discussing examination papers (61%), assisting each other in preparing teaching and learning materials (49%), sharing ideas on how to plan lessons (47), consulting each other on subject matter (45%), consulting each other on appropriate teaching methods (23%) and co-teaching (8%). Additionally, the  mentees were asked to mention whether their assignments or course work made them reflect on how they addressed the  learning needs of pupils with SEN in their placement classroom. The  supervisors were asked to indicate whether they provided mentees with assignments or coursework during the one-year teaching practice that made mentees reflect on how they addressed the  diverse learning needs of students with SEN. The  mentees and supervisors were then asked to list some of the  assignments provided. Only nine percent of supervisors indicated that they had provided mentees with assignments; seven percent mentioned that they had provided assignments relating to guidance and counselling, and five percent indicated that they had provided assignments relating to classroom management. However, none of the mentees confirmed that such assignments had been provided during teaching practice. The challenges faced by mentees during teaching practice In the  final part of the  survey, all mentees were asked to list the  main challenges they encountered during their teaching practice as far as addressing the  diverse learning needs of students was concerned. The  coding yielded eighteen categories, which were organized under five major umbrella themes, namely: students’ characteristics, teachers’ characteristics, collaboration with stakeholders, physical environment and resources. Under the  ‘students’ characteristics’ theme, the mentees indicated that the  diverse learning needs of students and lack of interest of students in learning presented enormous challenges to them during teaching practice. Under the  ‘teachers’ characteristics’ theme, they mentioned inadequate teacher preparation and their inability to engage all students in lessons. With regard to collaboration with stakeholders, the mentees found lack of parental cooperation to be most challenged during teaching practice. They also indicated that the  lack of teaching and learning materials presented 279William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... enormous challenges in terms of resource availability. Under the ‘physical environment’ category, large class sizes and inaccessible physical environments were mentioned. The results are presented in Table 4. Table 4. Challenges trainees encountered as far as meeting the special needs of pupils were concerned Challenges encountered by Mentees Mentees (N=171) % Student characteristics Stigmatization of students with SEN 49 Students’ lack of interest in learning 44 Emotional and behavioral problems among students 43 The diverse learning needs of students 40 Resources Lack of teaching and learning materials 59 Inadequate desks 37 Lack of specialists to assist us 32 Teacher characteristics Inadequate teacher preparation to address the special needs among students 50 Lack of skills to engage all students in lesson 33 Physical environment Large class size 45 Inaccessible physical environment 37 Collaboration with stakeholders Lack of parental cooperation 30 Lack of cooperation with mentors 41 Lack of well-trained mentors 38 Discussion Authentic opportunities are required in order for teacher trainees to exercise their capabilities of translating theory into practice. One such opportunity is school-based learning (teaching practice), which forms part of many initial teacher education programmes. The  first question in this study sought to describe the main activities that mentees performed during teaching practice. The main activities consistently mentioned by mentees, mentors and supervisors included preparation of lesson notes and teaching and learning materials, teaching and assessing student performance and 280 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 management of student behaviour. These findings reflect those of Kuyini and Desai (2009), who observed that the teaching practices of regular classroom teachers were limited to class management and lesson presentations. One unanticipated finding was that only few mentees indicated that they had observed the lesson delivery of their mentors as part of the main activities performed during teaching practice. This is surprising because during teaching practice, two mentees share a  classroom with their assigned mentor. It can therefore be assumed that mentees’ observation of mentors’ demonstration of inclusive attitudes, knowledge and skills is not a planned task or an expected activity during teaching practice. Previous studies have established that such observations by mentees promote critical reflection among mentees about their classroom teaching experiences (Dart, 2006; EADSNE, 2012; Nash & Norwich, 2010). Although the  majority of mentors indicated that there were students with SEN in their various classes, the few mentees who had the opportunity to observe their mentors’ lesson delivery indicated that the  instructional approaches adopted by their mentors mainly included lectures, discussions, demonstrations, questions and answers, brainstorming, role play and the  discovery method. These instructional approaches were likely to be unresponsive to the  minority of students with SEN and disabilities. This finding is consistent with that of Agbenyega and Deku (2011), Alhassan and Abosi (2014) and Kuyini and Desai (2009), who found that regular classroom teachers in Ghana are unable to make adequate instructional adaptations to support children with disabilities. Inclusive education requires teachers to modify and adapt the  curriculum and instructions to meet the diverse needs of students. Consequently, some mentees and the majority of supervisors mentioned a  lack of well-trained mentors and a  lack of cooperation with mentors as some of the challenges they encountered in relation to addressing the diverse learning needs of students. It could therefore be argued that mentees might not fully benefit from observing mentors in terms of the acquisition of basic inclusive teaching competences. Studies have shown that mentees’ views, beliefs and practices are mostly determined by their mentors (Angelides et al., 2006) and that they learn inclusive teaching practices from them during the mentoring and supervision process (Lawson et al., 2013). It is evident that the mentors themselves require professional development for the  implementation of inclusive education. In-service teachers in similar contexts have expressed the need for ‘in-house mentorship’ and continuous professional development to equip them with key inclusive values and competences (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay, 2015). This could also equip mentors with the  capabilities to model appropriate inclusive teaching practices for trainees. 281William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... With respect to the  second research question, the  most frequently mentioned inclusive practices mastered by the mentees were writing boldly, loud speaking, code switching to ensure understanding and questions and answers. Despite the  presence of pupils with SEN in most classrooms, the teaching strategies adopted by both the trainees and mentors were less related to inclusive, child-centred and constructivist teaching approaches and did not require changes to planning and the curriculum, neither were adjustments made to the  materials and instructional practices for special learners. Key inclusive practices  – such as the  physical arrangement of seats, revising previous knowledge, cooperative learning, mixed-ability grouping and collaborating with parents and other professionals  – were only mentioned by a  minority of mentees. Teachers who are committed to inclusive practices encourage cooperative and heterogeneous learning groups, activity learning, different seating arrangements and differentiated instructional approaches. Globally, studies have shown that teaching practice can promote critical reflection among student teachers (Angelides et al., 2006; Clarke et al., 2012; Nash & Norwich, 2010) and effectively prepare inclusive teachers (Dart, 2006; Lawson et al., 2013). The study showed that only a few supervisors provided assignments during teaching practice aimed at encouraging critical reflection among mentees. The  assignments were only related to guidance counselling and classroom management. However, this account by the supervisors was not corroborated by the mentees. The presence of pupils with SEN in regular classrooms in Ghana presents an opportunity to assist trainees to familiarize themselves with inclusive practices and the needs of pupils with SEN. The  findings of this study show that such opportunities were not deliberately created, suggesting that more needs to be done to ensure that these opportunities are fully utilized to equip trainees with inclusive practices. Teaching practice must create opportunities for trainees to examine their own beliefs and learn how to address the  diversity of needs in the  classroom (Jordan et al., 2009). The  use of SEN/disability- related tasks during teaching practice has a significant impact on trainees’ knowledge and understanding of SEN as well as their attitudes towards inclusive education (Arbeiter & Hartley, 2002; Dart, 2006; Lawson et al., 2013). Other promising teaching practice strategies include enabling trainees to become engaged in the direct teaching experience of pupils with identified SEN (Lawson et al., 2013), writing of portfolios (Angelides et al., 2006), assessment methods such as essays about SEN/disabilities, teaching plans and reports about teaching individuals and/or groups of pupils with SEN and peer- and self-review methods (Nash & Norwich, 2010). As part of teacher training, trainees should be provided with professional learning opportunities, such as consultation, coaching, communities of 282 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 practice, mentoring, reflective supervision and technical assistance, etc. so as to develop collaborative skills that will enable them to engage in effective collaborative teaching (West, 2010). In this study, a  majority of the trainees reported collaborating with their fellow trainees in study circles to discuss exam papers for external examinations, assisting each other with the preparation of teaching and learning materials, sharing ideas on how to plan lessons and consulting each other on subject matter and appropriate teaching methods. Only a minority actually engaged in co-teaching. These findings suggest that the  mentees felt more comfortable consulting their fellow mentees to share ideas about teaching and learning than actually engaging in co-teaching with them. Co-teaching  – a  teaching approach whereby two or more people share responsibility for teaching – has been found to be effective in assisting teachers to serve all students fairly and equitably in general education classrooms (Villa et al., 1996). In the current study, while two trainees practiced their teaching in one classroom, only a few of them indicated that they had collaborated by means of co-teaching. Unsurprisingly, co-teaching was not identified as one of the best inclusive practices learnt during teaching practice. This might be partly attributed to the  insufficient amounts of attention being paid to the development of trainees’ co-teaching skills, thus resulting in a  lack of such skills among trainees. Also, perhaps the importance of collaboration with other teachers through co-teaching might not have been taught or modelled to the trainees and was not part of the  expected activities they had to perform during teaching practice. Elsewhere, trainees on teaching practice are expected to carry out co-teaching with their mentor in the early stages of their teaching experience in order to familiarize themselves with routines and programmes (Western Sydney University, 2018). Studies in similar contexts have found that while teachers acknowledged the  importance of collaboration in implementing inclusive education, they lacked the  skills to implement it (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay, 2015; Swart et al., 2004). The  ability of teachers to co-teach has been attributed to their pre-service and in- service training programmes (Villa et al., 1996). What is surprising is that the majority of mentees reported collaborating with their fellow trainees in study circles to discuss exam papers for external examinations. This finding arguably confirms the dominant examination-oriented culture in colleges of education and shows how it affects trainees’ teaching practice. Lastly, the  mentees identified several factors that challenged their capacity to meet the  special needs of pupils during teaching practice. The  stigmatization of students with SEN was one of the  challenges regarding students’ characteristics most mentioned by the  mentees. In Ghana, people tend to have strong views about disability, which are often based on stereotypes and traditional beliefs (Dako-Gyeke & Asumang, 283William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... 2013). This finding raises intriguing questions about the  effectiveness of public education regarding issues of disability in Ghana and implies that the government must invest more effort and resources in public sensitization programmes. Other challenges relating to students’ characteristics included students’ lack of interest in learning, emotional and behavioural problems among students and the great diversity in students’ learning needs. These results are likely to be related to ineffective teacher preparation, resulting in an obvious lack of capacity among mentees in utilizing teaching strategies to effectively respond to the diversity of needs and abilities among pupils. Respect for diversity is a  key inclusive value; diversity is a  rich resource for learning, rather than a  problem, and inclusive education welcomes diversity amongst all learners (UNESCO, 2009). Therefore, these findings suggest that teacher education programmes must be reformed to equip teachers with the understanding that students are individuals with diverse characteristics, interests and strengths and that they need to adopt different instructional strategies to engage students based on their diverse learning needs, interests and characteristics in the inclusive classroom. Research has established that teachers need additional personnel assistance, adequate material resources, reduction in class sizes and accessible physical environments in order to effectively implement inclusive education (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). The  mentees in this study encountered resource and physical barriers, such as lack of teaching and learning materials, inadequate desks and lack of specialist assistance, large class sizes and inaccessible physical environments. Above all, the majority of mentees described their own initial teacher education programme as ineffective in preparing them to address the  special needs among students, and less than half indicated that they lacked the  skills to engage all students in their classroom. These challenges are consistent with those cited by previous studies as barriers to the adoption of inclusive practices (Croft, 2010) and to achieving meaningful inclusive education in Ghana and other low-income countries (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013). These challenges have been found to impact negatively on teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education and are of great concern to teachers with regards to the  implementation of inclusive education (Avramidis et al., 2000; Chhabra et al., 2010; Sawhney, 2015; Swart et al., 2004). Several authors have argued that these local contextual factors influence the way in which teaching strategies are interpreted, adapted and implemented (Tabulawa, 2013); thus, the  teaching methods used by trainees and mentors might have been dictated by the  conditions under which they teach. Moreover, collaboration with key stakeholders, such as other educational professionals, special educators, parents and communities, has been regarded as a  core value for all teachers working in inclusive education (UNESCO, 2005). 284 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 However, the  present study described key stakeholders, such as parents and mentors, as uncooperative. This finding strengthens the  earlier call for the  implementation of professional development opportunities for key stakeholders, such as mentors and parents, to equip them with knowledge and skills to collaborate with mentees. Moreover, skills and strategies for collaboration should be incorporated into the teacher education curriculum to prepare mentees. Limitations of the current study The results of this study should be interpreted with due caution because of a number of limitations. First, to collect data, the study depended only on the  accounts of pre-service teachers in conveniently selected schools. The  pre-service teachers undertaking their teaching practice in different schools might have had different experiences from those reported here. We recommend that future studies adopt probability sampling to increase the generalizability of the results. Second, although the current study used a  great deal of open-ended questions, the  amount of space provided for the answers might have determined the length and fullness of the responses obtained. Future studies should adopt qualitative data collection approaches, such as interviews and observation, to capture information regarding the teaching practice experiences of pre-service teachers. Notwithstanding these limitations, this work offers valuable insights into the main activities that mentees perform during their teaching practice, the inclusive practices they learn during teaching practice, the extent of the collaboration among themselves during teaching practice, the  impact of teaching practice on them and the challenges they face in addressing SEN among pupils during teaching practice. Implications for policymaking and conclusion This study showed that the  presence of SEN pupils in mainstream classrooms was not fully utilized to prepare teachers on issues of SEN and inclusive practices. Teaching practice in initial teacher education should be reformed to improve teacher training for inclusive education. To support trainees’ learning on SEN and inclusion, teaching practice could, for example, incorporate planned pupil-focused SEN and disability tasks, writing of portfolios and essays about SEN/disabilities. Such task designs have been found to improve trainees’ learning about pupils with SEN and teaching approaches of relevance for them. They have also been found to promote attitudinal change and critical reflective practices among trainees. 285William Nketsia, Maxwell Peprah Opoku, Eric Lawer Torgbenu. Teacher Trainees’ ... Also, the current study found that the mentors demonstrated inadequate inclusive pedagogical approaches. This stresses the  need for professional development opportunities for school-based mentors to equip them with inclusive attitudes, knowledge and skills so as to enable them to effectively support trainees. Two trainees practicing teaching in the  same classroom is a  golden co-teaching opportunity. However, only few trainees took advantage of this opportunity. The  current data highlight the  need for more attention to be paid to the development of collaborative skills among trainees. The importance of collaboration with other teachers through co- teaching must be taught and modelled to trainees. Further research could be carried out to specifically determine the extent to which mentoring and supervision of teaching practice can equip trainees with inclusive practices. References Agbenyega, J., & Deku, P. (2011). Building new identities in teacher preparation for inclusive education in Ghana. Current Issues in Education, 14(1), 1–32. 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Initial teacher training to meet the needs of students with disabilities who are culturally and linguistically diverse. In C. Forlin (Ed.), Teacher Education for Inclusion: Changing Paradigms and Innovative Approaches (pp. 208–214). Abingdon: Routledge. Western Sydney University. (2018). Handbook – 102153 Professional Experience (Additional Needs). Western Sydney University. 289Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE ROLES OF THE ONLINE ENVIRONMENT IN SCHOOL–FAMILY COMMUNICATION Otilia Clipa Stefan cel Mare University, Romania Valentina Juravle Stefan cel Mare University, Romania ABSTRACT The study focused on the issue of increasing communication efficiency between school and family using the  online environment. The  aim of the  study is to evaluate to what extent the online communication environment can improve the process of communication between school and family. The  study is quantitative, based on the  questionnaire method. Two questionnaires were distributed in the  online environment to teachers and parents. Both questionnaires showed that the  communication relationship between school and family is not very efficient; this being the  reason for hypothesizing that online communication between parents and teachers could be a solution to this issue. In this context, both investigated samples foresee the benefits of a communication relationship between school and family in the online environment and do not consider that information transmitted in this way differs from that transmitted in a direct conversation. Keywords: Communication, School, Family, Efficiency, Online Communication. Introduction Communication has always been a subject of interest for many disciplines, including philosophy. Ever since antiquity, philosophers across the  world have reflected on communication, discovering its role in life, especially in social life. If we could summarize the whole history of philosophy, we could assert that in antiquity, communication ontology concerns were predominant. Communication is everywhere, and the field of communication has become vast. All human activities, individual or collective, revolve around information that is sent, received or analysed. Communication is part of action and reflection, just as currency is part of the economy (Zemor, 2003). Digital competence is the  most recent concept describing technology- related skills. During recent years, several terms have been used to describe https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.19 Otilia Clipa, Valentina Juravle The Roles of the Online Environment ... 290 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  skills and competence of using digital technologies, such as ICT skills, technology skills, information technology skills, 21st century skills, information literacy, digital literacy and digital skills. These terms are also often used as synonyms; e.g. digital competence and digital literacy (Adeyemon, 2009; Almås & Krumsvik, 2008; Krumsvik, 2008; Petersson, 2018). Sometimes the  terms are narrow, e.g., Internet skills, referring only to a limited area of digital technology, while some of them widen the  content to media and literacy, e.g., media literacy skills or digital literacy (Clipa & Colomeischi, 2013; Ilomäki, Kantosalo, & Lakkala, 2011; Ottestad, 2008; Petersson, 2018). Students interact collaboratively with teachers and technology. Computers deliver and mark lessons, while the teacher acts as a facilitator and mentor (Bennett, 2002; Dooling, 2000).Furthermore, educators have “to accept changes…in [their] interactions…with students and they [have] to support students as their roles change, too” (Harris, 2002). People not only socialize online, but they make use of the  Internet in seeking information, exchanging advice and making decisions. Americans may now have only one or two extremely close relationships, but dozens of core and significant ties in the “networked” community (Boase et al. 2006). In the circumstances, both the theoretical and practical studies will aim at focusing on presenting all the  important characteristics which define the family environment, as well as those defining the school environment. We chose to approach this issue because we wanted to identify as many relevant aspects as possible in this context, as well as wanting to apply, in the educational context, the new ideas from specific literature that already existed in this area of study. All these basic considerations regarding the  importance of this subject drew the  interest of many specialists in this area of study, which is not recent, but is a part of human communication research and analysis, namely that of antisocial deviations. Cornell University offers a definition that works, but seems somewhat limited and dated as well: “Digital literacy  is the  ability to find, evaluate, utilize, share, and create content using information technologies and the  Internet”(Melnikova et al., 2017; Olofsson, Lindberg, Fransson, & Hauge, 2015; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010). This isn’t wrong rather it focuses too much on technology and “the Internet”. Literacy cannot be about the  forms unless we’re talking about  form literacy.  Digital tools exist for accessing information and finding better information’access, socializing thinking and spreading ideas; connecting and contributing to digital communities you care about (Heick, 2015; Petersen, 2014). In a study on the role of the Internet in families, it was found that 33% of Internet users said that the Internet had improved 291Otilia Clipa, Valentina Juravle. The Roles of the Online Environment ... their connections to friends “a lot”, and 23% said Internet communication had increased the quality of their communication with family members by a similar amount. Young people in particular took advantage of the social side of the  Internet. Nearly half (49%) of 18–29 year olds said that the Internet had improved their connections to friends a lot. On the other hand, 19% of employed Internet users said that the Internet had increased the amount of time they spent working at home (Eynon& Helsper, 2014). Some studies focus on one-stop targeting, in which the seeds are selected by selecting the highest in-degree nodes and randomly selecting one of their neighbours (Kim et al., 2015). These studies hypothesized that the online social network is a strongly connected component, in which every node can gain access to the rest of the nodes in the network (Shakya et al., 2017). In a study done in 2004, Boase and his colleagues (2006) found that even with the  flourishing of the  Internet, people still commonly communicated with their social ties in traditional ways, in addition to the use of the Internet for social communication. They found that in-person encounters were most widely used, followed by landline phone, cell phone, email, and IM communication. Far from being a medium that connects weaker ties in superficial ways, email was used more for maintaining core rather than significant ties. Core ties are more often relied upon for seeking help than significant ties. But significant ties are composed of people more than acquaintances and can, at times, become important players in help-seeking. Boase and his colleagues (2006) found that people not only socialized online, but they incorporated the Internet into seeking information, exchanging advice, and making decisions. Americans may now have only one or two extremely close relationships, but dozens of core and significant ties in the  ‘‘networked’’ community. Four years later in 2008, a similar study on social isolation and new technology found that in-person contact remained the dominant means of communication with core members; emails, instant messaging, and social networking websites supplemented this dominant mode of communication (Hampton et al. 2009). In a study done in 2004, Boase and his colleagues (2006) found that even with the flourishing of the Internet, people still commonly communicated with their social ties in traditional ways, in addition to the  use of the  Internet for social communication. They found that in-person encounters were most widely used, followed by landline phone, cell phone, email, and IM communication. Far from being a medium that connects weaker ties in superficial ways, email was used more for maintaining core rather than significant ties. Core ties are more often relied upon for seeking help than significant ties. But significant ties are composed of people more than acquaintances and can, at times, become important players in help-seeking. Boase and his colleagues (2006) found 292 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 that people not only socialized online, but they incorporated the  Internet into seeking information, exchanging advice, and making decisions. Americans may now have only one or two extremely close relationships, but dozens of core and significant ties in the  ‘‘networked’’ community. Four years later in 2008, a similar study on social isolation and new technology found that in-person contact remained the dominant means of communication with core members; emails, instant messaging, and social networking websites supplemented this dominant mode of communication (Hampton et al. 2009). This paper considers a case study on making communication more efficient between school and family, using the online environment. Methodology The aim of the study The study aims to assess to what extent the  online environment can improve the school–family communication process. The objectives of our study were: 1. The analysis of the communication relationship between school and family; 2. Identifying the  extent to which the  online environment influences school–family communication; 3. Identifying the  most appropriate communication channels between school and family; 4. Assessing the  extent to which the  improvement of the  school– family communication relationship through the online environment determines the improvement of the pupils’ school performances. Research hypothesis The present study starts from the following hypothesis: 1. It is assumed that the online environment could improve the school– parents’ communication frequency for parents. 2. It is assumed that there are differences regarding the preferences for the communication environment between parents and teachers. 3. It is assumed that there is a positive correlation between online communication between school and family and the improvement of the pupils’ grades. 293Otilia Clipa, Valentina Juravle. The Roles of the Online Environment ... Participants and procedure There were 120 respondents taking part in this research, 60 parents and 60 teachers. The  two investigated samples had different ages and genders. Thus, regarding the  gender a perfect proportionality was kept between mothers and fathers. However, the teachers did not have the same homogeneity, the  female subjects being numerically superior. The ages of the  parents who took part of the  study were between 29 and 49, with an average of 38.13 years. The  teachers’ ages were relatively similar to the parents, between 27 and 52, with an average of 37.23 years. The present study is quantitative based on the  questionnaire method. This was distributed online. It was considered to be easier to share the  questionnaire online, on ‘iSondaje.ro’asit allows creating your own survey free of charge. The preliminary results could be seen immediately after the questionnaire was filled in by the respondents. The data were also exported into Excel and SPSS. Similar toother methods of questionnaires dissemination, the  online surveys were used on a large scale, thus receiving enough feedback can take a while, and the results can sometimes be irrelevant or errors may occur. In this study, only one questionnaire was applied for two different groups of subjects, so that the items’ design was slightly different too, depending on the studied sample. Results In order to conduct the  present research, education, age and place of origin were not taken into consideration as sample selection criteria. The  data were collected through the  Internet; all the  questionnaires were delivered to different groups accessed by the  target population on Facebook, then processed in SPSS. According to the literature, the samples size should be calculated with a 95% probability with an acceptable statistical error of 5%. The analysis of the  two applied questionnaires begins with an assessment of the school–family relationship. In this context, from the parents’ point of view, as presented in the  table below, most of them, namely 43.3% assess the relationship with their children’s school as a good one. It may be seen though that there is 6.7% of parents have no relationship to the school, describing it as being non-existent. The opinions of the  teachers to the  same item are relatively different, most of the  respondents, namely, 33.3% describing the  school–family relationship as being distant. Another difference is the  fact that 23.3% of the  parents describe the  relationship with the  school as very good while only 16.7% of the teachers chose this answer. 294 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Thus, teachers think that the relationship between school and family is more distant than the parents see it. The next item assessed the frequency of the contact parents have with school, from their point of view. In this context, as it can be noticed below, most of the  respondent parents (33.3%) claimed that they keep in touch weekly with school and their children’s teachers. Forthe same item, only 3.3% of the  parents asserted that they contact the  school and teachers annually or never. The teachers’ opinion is different regarding this item too, with 26.7% asserting that parents get in touch with school every 2–3 weeks. Also, unlike the  3.3% of parents who claim to be in contact with school each year, the teachers claim that there are more than 10% of them. The third item from both questionnaires focused on increasing the school– family communication frequency through online communication. In this context, 86.7% of the questioned parents agreed to this idea. Within this item, the teachers’ opinions did not differ much from those of the parents, so that 76.7% of the  questioned teachers answered affirmatively. The similarity of the teachers’ and parents’ answers can be noticed too in the correlation presented below (Table 1). Table 1. Correlation of parents’ and teachers’ opinions Correlations Parents’ opinion Teachers’ opinion Parents’ opinion 1 -.312 Teachers’ opinion -.312 1 There was a discussion on how online communication could improve the school–family relationship. In this context, 80% of the parents said that this online communication can improve the  relationship with the  school. In this case too, the teachers’ opinion was relatively similar to the parents’, so that 80% and 76.7%of them, respectively, asserted that they agree that online communication can improve the relationship with the parents. Through this item, the  first suggested hypothesis can be verified, by which it is supposed that the  online environment would increase the  frequency of the  school–family communication for the  parents. Thus, analysing the  answers of both samples, it can be asserted that the  hypothesis is confirmed, taking into account that more than 70% of the  subjects answered affirmatively to this item. This hypothesis can be validated also by the  correlation of the parents’ and teachers’ answers to the same question. On this item, the subjects’ opinions were different according to gender, so that it can be noticed in the table below, that the male teachers are more 295Otilia Clipa, Valentina Juravle. The Roles of the Online Environment ... optimistic regarding the  improvement of the  parents–school relationship with this type of communication. We tried to identify the most appropriate way to communicate online. In this case, most respondent parents, namely 33.3% considered WhatsApp as the  most appropriate, followed closely by Facebook. The  teachers’ opinions were very different regarding this item. Thus, most of the  respondents, namely50% of them considered that the most adequate formof online communication with the parents is through a platform specially created for such discussions, the next method chosen in this context being represented by e-mail. The second hypothesis, which assumes that there are differences in the  preference for the  communication environment between parents and teachers, is confirmed by this item, a fact which is also confirmed by the results presented above, indicating obvious differences between the two investigated samples. The next item assesses the  respondents’ opinion regarding the  online sending of messages, namely the  idea according to which we can send the same information online as in a direct communication. In this context, most of the parents, specifically 73.3%, agreed to this assertion. The opinion of the teaching staff was not much different within this item either, 80% of the teachers believing that they could also transmit the same information in an online environment. Teachers’ beliefs, practices and attitudes are important for understanding and improving educational processes. They are closely linked to teachers’ strategies for coping with challenges in their daily professional life and to their general well-being, and they shape students’ learning environment and influence student motivation and achievement. Furthermore, they can be expected to mediate the effects of job-related policies – such as changes in curricula for teachers’ initial education or professional development – on student learning. TALIS examines a variety of beliefs, practices and attitudes which previous research has shown to be relevant to the improvement and effectiveness of schools (OECD, 2018). The following table (Table 2) shows the  negative correlation between parents’ and teachers’ opinion about the utility of Internet and technology in education. Furthermore, teachers who readily integrate technology into their instruction are more likely to possess constructivist teaching styles. Evidence suggests there is a parallel between a teacher’s student-centred beliefs about instruction and the  nature of the  teacher’s technology- integrated lessons. This connection between the  use of technology and constructivist pedagogy implies constructivist-minded teachers maintain dynamic student-centred classrooms where technology is a powerful learning tool(Judson, 2006). 296 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 2. Correlation between parents’ and teachers’ opinion Parents’ opinion Teachers’ opinion Parents’ opinion Pearson Correlation 1 -.159 Sig. (2-tailed) .003 N 60 30 Teachers’ opinion Pearson Correlation -.159 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .003 N 60 30 Some forms of technology will not necessarily yield comparable results in every educational environment. Technology is not used in isolation for teaching and learning, and the  impact of technology on education is largely determined by the educational setting established. To be successful, a teacher attempting to integrate technology into a classroom environment must consider factors such as: administration, teacher, student and parental attitudes towards technology; the educator’s teaching style and philosophy; the  subject and concepts taught; and the  learning styles of the  students (Tolmie, 2001). Next, the study aimed to calculate the extent to which permanent online communication with school can determine pupils’ school success. Thus, 40% of the  parents consider that an online communication relationship can moderately improve performance in school. The  respondent teachers think the same, but with a higher percentage, namely, 46.7%. As a result of the  data obtained for this item, the  hypothesis according to which there is a positive correlation between school–family communication and the  improvement of the  pupils’ grades is validated. The  study further assessed the extent to which the online communication environment really represents a solution for maintaining an effective school–family relationship. Regarding this item, most of the  surveyed parents, namely 46.7%, are almost entirely in agreement with the  idea that online communication is really a solution to maintaining an effective relationship with the  school. The teachers’ opinion was not much different from that of the parents, so 40% of them also argued that they are almost entirely in agreement with the fact that online communication is really a solution for maintaining an effective relationship with the parents. 297Otilia Clipa, Valentina Juravle. The Roles of the Online Environment ... Discussion Both questionnaires confirmed the  fact that the  communication relationship between school and families is not a very efficient one, which formed the  premise according to which online communication between parents and school could be a solution. In this context, both surveyed samples said that the  online environment can be an important and good opportunity both for the  school and pupils, namely, for their academic performances. Even though the  same questionnaire was applied to both samples, there were differences of opinion between parents and teachers, the most important of them relating to the item for identifying the most appropriate online communication channels (Ahrens et al., 2015; Olofsson et al., 2015). However, both surveyed groups see the  benefits of a school-to-family communication relationship in the online environment, and do not believe that the information transmitted in this way would be different from that transmitted in a direct conversation (Ivan & Duduciuc, 2011). It is therefore recommended to maintain a communication relationship between school and family in the  online environment for any kind of situation. Of course, direct communication is also very important, but in the  absence of resources to maintain an effective direct communication relationship, encouraging the  promotion of online communication is recommended. Conclusions The idea of school–family communication involves a partnership. Thus, the school–family partnership becomes the most accessible and beneficial. All the teachers are in need of important information regarding the pupils’ family circumstances, as well as regarding their socio-affective status at home. An efficient school relates to the pupil, by valuing and respecting his or her identity within the family, recognizing its importance and drawing on it in the teaching process with all the educative resources of the society which it identifies, involves and actively uses. There is also a complex network of relationships within the school, which are important in influencing pupils’ education, both positively and negatively (Krumsvik, 2008; Petersson, 2018; Rime, 2007). Currently, the dimensions of this relationship are more encompassing as a result of the widening of the collaboration concept towards communication through cooperation, and more recently, through the partnership concept 298 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 which comprises everyone and expresses a certain positive and democratic approach towards educative relations. An effective school works in partnership with the student, respecting his or her identity with the family, recognizing its importance and seeking to always draw into the teaching process all the society educational resources which it identifies, involves and even actively uses. There are situations where communication barriers between teachers and parents arise, either from lack of experience or of team spirit or being unable to find the time to collaborate with school. This paper has shown that the online environment is a very good media for communication and for maintaining an effective relationship between school and family, so this type of communication is encouraged, online communication being not much different to direct communication and which can have many benefits and advantages, from which both parents and teachers can benefit. For the pupils’ well-being, it is recommended that such barriers should be removed, either through the parents’ or teachers’ efforts. References Adeyemon, E. (2009). Integrating Digital Literacies into Outreach Services for Underserved Youth Populations. The Reference Librarian, 50, 85–98. 10.1080/02763870802546423. Ahrens, A., Zaščerinska, J., Melnikova, J., Ramar, H., Clipa, O., & Andreeva, N. (2015). 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Retrieved from http://www. pewinternet.org/Reports/2008/Networked-Families.aspx. 301Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 REFLECTION OF PRESERVICE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL PERFORMANCE FOR PROMOTING TRANSDISCIPLINARY LEARNING IN PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča University of Latvia, Latvia Ilze Briška University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The study aims to develop a  well-structured and applicable instruction for teacher’s self- reflection about their competence to effectuate transdisciplinary learning in primary school settings. Ten preservice teachers were asked to reflect on their transdisciplinary teaching practice in different ways. The content analysis of interviews helped to find out the categories, which provoked the most personally significant, professional and contextual reflections. These categories were structured in the experimental form of teacher’s self- reflection for teacher education and further research. Keywords: transdisciplinary teaching and learning, teachers’ professional performance, primary school education, self-reflection, metacognition. Introduction Transdisciplinary teaching and learning (TD) is becoming a  significant topic/issue in Latvia today in the context of developing a competence-based approach in education. Principles of integrated transdisciplinary learning in primary education and contradictions of description and evaluation of competence in the Latvian educational environment are analysed in the authors’ previous articles (Briška, Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, 2016, 2018, 2019). These studies found a dearth of available tools for evaluating the quality of TD and teacher’s professional performance relative to it. The problem is that competence, as with TD, is a complex phenomenon. It is challenging to evaluate it objectively and deeply at the same time, without losing any essential component. It is important for teacher education as well, in that it helps preservice teachers consider their teaching in categories https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.20 Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, Ilze Briška Reflection of Preservice Teacher Professional ... 302 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 appropriate to the new curricula. (Self-reflection, as an essential component of a learning process, is a rather new topic in Latvian educational practice. It has become salient in the context of deriving competence-based curricula in general education and teacher education as well. With the objective of developing and testing a  tool for effective reflection and evaluation of preservice teacher’s performance, a qualitative investigation was performed. Data were derived through semi-structured interviews. Ten preservice teachers, who are studying TD within their teacher education programme, were asked to reflect upon their TD teaching practice using their own words. The categories, which provoked the most personally significant, professional and contextual reflections of preservice teachers’ TD teaching practice, were found through content analysis. These categories were structured in the experimental form for preservice teacher’s self-reflection on their TD practice. Aim of the Study The aim of the study is to develop an instructional tool for teacher’s self-reflection within their TD practice. To do so, we sought to delineate the structure, key words, and sample questions  that would  help them describe  and analyse their perceived competency in the  organization of primary education TD  – in a  manner that is deeply held,  professionally derived, and critically astute. Materials and Methods TD in primary education The praxis of TD, together with multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and learning, represent three related modes of integrated learning. All employ teaching more than one subject at a time, involve students as active learners, and claim to be more efficient for the learning process than the traditional, disciplinary (i.e., rote) approach. Each develops a different set of relations across the following three dimensions of sociocultural learning: • Professional: accumulation of knowledge in particular field, solving complex professional tasks, productive, effective, and professional performance. • Individual: development of learner’s mental resources, i.e., individual abilities and skills (including high-level thinking; metacognitive and learning skills), and personal experiences. • Context: life, world, events, society, culture, values, new situation, resolving the problem, etc. (Kron, 2004; Tiļļa, 2008). 303Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, Ilze Briška. Reflection of Preservice Teacher Professional ... The focus of the multidisciplinary approach is primarily on the various disciplines involved: a  teacher organises learning standards for those subjects  – generally around a  unifying theme. In the interdisciplinary approach to integration – beyond the academic content per se – students learn generic skills pertaining to collaboration, research, writing, communication  – and, as well, design and construction. In TD approach, learners create innovative solutions to an actual problem by developing the content and tools of these various disciplines, applying interdisciplinary and disciplinary skills in a real-life context (Drake & Burns, 2004; Helmane & Briška, 2017). Learning becomes organic, meaningful, and transformative, altogether holistic as opposed to mechanical (Binder, Absenger-Helmli, & Schilling, 2015; Briška, Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, 2016, 2018, 2019; Kaufmann, Moss, & Osborn, 2003; Sterling, 2011). Unlike the other integrated teaching and learning approaches, the main focus in TD is on solving the real life problem; development of student’s professional knowledge and individual skills are dependent on, and in a sense, an outgrowth of it (Figure 1). Figure 1. Components of TD From this, it follows that optimal application of TD includes: (a)  the resolution of a  life-based question or problem (context of learning); (b) promoting the development of students’ basic skills and competencies; and (c) organisation of content of particular disciplines in response to the problem. These components serve as criteria for recognising, reflecting upon, and evaluating preservice teacher’s ability to perform TD teaching. Preservice teacher’s self-reflection There are many examinations and analyses regarding the utility of reflection in professional activity. The findings derived through these research can readily be applied to teachers’ professional education. Despite the diversity of views within this literature, all authors agree 304 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 that reflection is a meaningful part of professional education. Reflection – together with theory, practice, and experience  – is a  component of experiential learning (Kolb, 1980; Griffin & Jarvis, 2006). It provides feedback by turning one’s back to her/his personal experience and drawing attention to feelings and analysing and re-evaluating them in a  range of different contexts (Rogers, 1961; Moore, 2000, 2004; Boud & Falchikov, 2005). Self-reflection is defined as an activity of thinking about one’s own feelings and behaviour and the reasons that may lie behind them (Cambridge Dictionary, 2019). Mortari (2015) describes this process as ‘a turning back on oneself’, where the inquirer – at once – is both the observed and the active observer. Schön (1987) distinguishes reflection in action, reflection on action (after action) and reflection on reflection (student’s metacognition). Haton and Smith suggest three levels of reflection: (a) descriptive (student remembers and becomes aware of his/her activities, results, and feelings and presents them in verbal form); (b) dialogic (student analyses particular aspects of her/his performance); and (c) critical (student involves him-/herself in reflection about the broad range of contexts touched upon by the subject matter, e.g., historical, social, political, etc., considers/presents contradictions and problems arising therefrom, analysing her/his own reasoning and conceptions, and arrives at conclusions regarding what caused this or that problem) (Haton and Smith 2006). Griffin, Holford, and Jarvis distinguish between critical and holistic reflection, depending on whether it is rational, i.e., involving a broad context of social and cultural values or   – in both contrast with and in addition to these aspects  – also appreciates feelings in terms of an individual’s personal experience (Griffin, Holford, and Jarvis, 2003). Moon analyses superficial vs. deep and transformative reflection, assuming that the latter plays an important role in more fulsome, contemplative, and reflective approaches to learning (Moon, 2013), such as represented by Klein, who distinguishes between a mechanical vs an organic mode of reflection. The first is analytical, linear, logical, and rational, involving deductive reasoning and metacognition; it is implemented frequently in teacher education curricula and evaluation processes with the aim of producing competent teachers (who can analyse and think critically about their professional activities). The alternative, more organic reflection enables teachers to think contemplatively, i.e., imaginatively about teaching  – and, with that, develop discernment, see qualitative nuances inherent in teaching and, overall, be able to understand and navigate the complexities of classroom and school life with greater wisdom and clarity (Klein, 2008). In various studies on teacher education, evaluations of the importance of descriptive reflection and its desirable content differ greatly. A number 305Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, Ilze Briška. Reflection of Preservice Teacher Professional ... of researchers (e.g., DiPietro & Walker, 2005; Patrick & Pintrich, 2001) propose that critical reflection is the highest level of reflection – alongside the technical evaluation of one’s pedagogical performance. Such models, however, pay scant attention to the student’s own experience. Hatton and Smith, for example, fail to consider assessment of the students’ emotional experience, which appears spontaneously as a  part of the ‘description of the event’ (Hatton and Smith, 2006). In her own analysis, Fenwick contrasts Mezirov’s transformative learning approach  – which involves identification of students’ beliefs underpinning her/his activities, comparing them with her/his experience of reality and ‘significant others’’ views, and Boud and colleagues’ approach, which intends to evaluate the student’s experiences together with her degree of involvment in experience and the feelings that experience has caused by (Fenwick, 2003; Boud & Falchikov, 2005). For the current research, a  structure holistic  – analytical  – critical reflection was chosen to promote student’s sensitivity, openness, and personal involvement, on the one hand, and professionalism, complexity, contextuality, on the other. Figure 2. Three levels of reflection 1. Holistic reflection: contemplating the process, noticing facts,  seeing qualitative nuances, verbalising previously unnamed phenomena, articulating what was done, and what has happened in the process of action. The holistic approach to reflection is grounded in the belief that teachers are whole persons and teaching is multidimensional, including personal, ethical, spiritual, aesthetic aspects and complex and nuanced activity (Erlandson, & Beach, 2008): Criteria: openness,  authenticity,  sensitivity  of perception (Rogers, 1961; Bandura, 1997; Klein, 2008). 2. Analytical reflection:  analytic, linear, logical, rational thinking, deductive reasoning, interpreting  facts  by  identifying  regularities and analysing them in a professional context. 306 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Criteria: the use of professional terminology, theoretical justification, the ability to analyse situations. 3. Critical reflection: evaluating the activities and learning in wider social and cultural contexts, and in relation to metacognition and justification of the situation and decision-making, according to different points of view. There is a  relationship between critical reflection and transformative learning that can impact upon individual self-efficacy beliefs and agency. Agency occurs across social structures and cultures and can be linked with social cognitive theory (Pantić, 2015). Critical reflection can enable person to engage with dilemmas and to affirm or identify their values and what is meaningful in their practice (Gardner, 2009). Criteria: diversity of points of view, awareness of individual,  social and cultural values and one’s responsibility to them. Thus, in the instructions for reflection, each dimension of TD (context, subject content, development of individuality) must be reflected across three levels (Figure 2). Research design In order to develop a  tool for effective reflection and evaluation of preservice teacher’s TD performance, qualitative research was performed. The study sample consisted of 10 randomly chosen preservice teachers, who study TD in their professional study programme and who agreed to be involved in the research. Data were collected in narrative interviews. Respondents were asked to reflect on their TD teaching practice immediately after having taught a  class as part of their study practice. As specific questions were not offered, respondents had to choose the words, i.e., how to verbalize their experiences, activities and learning. Unstructured interviews served as a  good opportunity for researchers to discover new ideas and unexpected points of view (Mayring, 2014). Following this phase, content analysis of the interviews was performed. Units of meaning were marked, coded, generalised into meta-codes, and related to categories of TD. Typical major words, phrases, and expressions were collected in order to delineate holistic, analytical, and critical ways of reflecting on student teachers’ TD practice. On the basis of these findings, an instruction for teachers’ self-reflection on TD practice was developed (with a structure and set of sample questions designed to elicit personally significant and contextually-based reflection). 307Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, Ilze Briška. Reflection of Preservice Teacher Professional ... Results The data analysis revealed several patterns of teachers’ self-reflection. The first expressions of respondents were emotional and spontaneous: ‘The garden party at the end of school year was sincere, fun, attractive, unforgettable’. I was in doubt when I chose this unusual topic for learning’. The naming of dominant feelings during practice, an emotional evaluation of the process in whole, can be evaluated as an index of holistic self-reflection. The first level of reflection expresses preservice teacher’s perceptions, i.e., feelings, emotions, and expectations, and lets them identify the elements of teaching and learning in general. This finding fits with Klein’s (2008) idea about describing/showing/naming, aspects of teachers’ inner life in her/his professional practice by using such words as bravery/courage, empathy, joy, hope, forgiveness, fortitude, generosity, imagination, inspiration, integrity, justice, kindness, love, mastery. These qualities are not typically appreciated in teacher education and mostly are not included in teachers’ professional standards; still, they are personally meaningful for students’ experiences or easily recognizable in practice. Below, respondents’ narratives follow a range of different paths. They look for causes; make judgments about the consequences of choices they made; and analyse the learning process in context of the chosen life problem, i.e., the learner’s involvement, their personality, and development and content of integrated disciplines: ‘they did multiple actions for calculating the amount of refreshments (math), to use polite speech phrases in the invitation (mother tongue), to blend ice cream cocktail (home economy)’, ‘the time for working in groups was too short’. The second level of reflection displayed students’ professional knowledge and analytical skills by categorization, comparison, logic reasoning and implementation of professional terminology. Another level of reflection of reflection revealed her/his personal significance, meaning, values: ‘Children’s skills of planning, cooking, singing, etc., were so useful there…, ‘my students calculated their own ecological footprint using math methods’. According to Cotter, critical reflection is challenging, but intrinsically offers a reflexive space for honesty, self-critique, and new beginnings (Cotter, 2014). Life and cultural contexts appear in the teaching and learning process always with the phrase ‘because of...’. In this self- reflective stage, respondents articulated fundamental values that affirmed the meaning of their professional performance in the life context. Respondents’ expressions, typical words, phrases and samples of questions were structured in accordance with three dimensions of TD learning and three levels of reflection (Table 1). 308 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 1. Preservice teachers’ self-reflection about TD Levels of reflection Typical words and phrases Appearance of TD in preservice teachers’ expressions Samples of questions Holistic reflection I did.., I felt…, I chose…, I decide…, It happens…, It appears…etc. Context – events, situations, problems in life - classroom, community, nature etc.; individual – students’ activities, behaviour, mimic, body language, expressions, intonations etc.; professional – I use methods; I expect it was so… What did you see? What did you feel about? What did happen? What did you decide to do? What did you choose? Analytical reflection I did it because of…, My activity results…, The reason was…, The less…, the better…, If teacher does…, child learn…, Next time I will/ will not do it… etc. Context – content of different subjects and students’ individual skills help to solve problem etc.; individual – this method promotes students’ learning, cognition, thinking, creativity, social skills etc.; professional – knowledge and processes of one field completed each other…etc. How do you solve the problem? How do you promote students’ learning, cognition, thinking, creativity, social skills etc.? How does content of one field help/ complete to learn another? Critical reflection It was important for me…, I chose it… because of, It was significant, meaningful, valuable for…, The contradiction is…etc. Context – it is (problem solution) significant for each of us, for community etc.; individual – it is personally, socially and culturally important for student’s learning etc. because of…; professional – importance of knowledge and skills of particular field for life - person, society, culture and world etc. What is a value of problem solution for each of you for community? Why this topic/ problem/ activity was actual for students? Why do you choose …? What is importance of knowledge and skills of particular discipline for life - person, society, culture and world? 309Gunta Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, Ilze Briška. Reflection of Preservice Teacher Professional ... These results suggest that preservice teachers’ deep and constructive self-reflection on their transdisciplinary teaching performance can be realized if questions suggested for reflection cover all dimensions of TD and three levels of reflection. In total, there are nine, or 3 x 3, types of questions (Figure 3). Figure 3. Nine types of questions for preservice teachers’ reflection on TD Multidimensional, multilevel reflection entails 3 × 3 questions. These nine questions, altogether, comprise ‘Form – 3 × 3 questions for TD self- reflection’, as will be developed and tested in future studies. Conclusions In optimal guidelines for preservice teachers’ self-reflection on TD, the structure of TD (context and individual professional dimensions) should be included. This forms the content of self-reflection. On the other hand, three levels of reflection: holistic, analytical, and critical, enabled the  development of instructions for self-reflection that were deeply held and personally significant. In the teacher’s reflection on her/his professional performance, the aesthetic point of view must be taken into account, in addition to the analytical and critical standpoint. 310 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 If one of dimension of TD is not presented in teacher self-reflection, we cannot be sure that TD has been realised completely. If one of the reflection levels is missing, preservice teacher’s competency may be questioned. The questions can be stated differently, but 3×3 question structure should be kept. References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W H Freeman/ Times Books/ Henry Holt. Binder, R., Absenger-Helmli, I., & Schilling, T. (2015). 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Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 7, 139–148. Siliņa-Jasjukeviča, G., & Briška, I. (2018). Realization of integrated learning in study practice: Preservice teachers experiences. Society. Integration. Education: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, 2, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.17770/sie2018vol1.3430. Sterling, S. (2010). Transformative learning and sustainability: Sketching the conceptual ground. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 5, 11, 17–33. Tiļļa, I. (2005). Sociālkultūras mācīšanās organizācijas sistēm [Socio-cultural learning organization system ]. Rīga: Raka. 312 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ARTISTIC COGNITION IN SECONDARY SCHOOL LITERATURE LESSONS Daiga Celmiņa University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The subject of Literature studies is connected with the  specifics of literature as the  art of words and the cognitive abilities of the particular age group. It is crucial that the cognitive process during Literature lessons has a  personal significance for the  pupils, therefore the teacher should engage in artistic cognition together with the pupils, taking up activities that aim to develop creativity and co-creation. Creative tasks in Literature lessons not only develop logic, rationality and analytical skills; creative tasks help to involve pupils in imaginative, emotional and reflective processes. Such activities cultivate critical thinking and associative skills, stimulate imagination and encourage self-discovery and self-expression. Concepts, opinions and conclusions are not the  only cognitive forms – there are images (creative mental models) and thought experiments as well. Therefore, the process of studies can be both reproductive and productive; problem solution, analysis and synthesis using literary fiction and, interdisciplinary, other arts, is at the  very heart of artistic cognition process as applied to Literature studies. Solution of unconventional tasks posed by fiction studies requires not only critical thinking, but also creativity and creation of new values. During Literature lessons, the  teacher encourages the  pupils to engage in artistic cognition correspondent to the needs and abilities of their age group, taking into account the  importance of stimulating pupils’ aesthetic needs in a value-oriented learning process, development of pupils’ artistic perception and creative thinking, reproductive and productive imagination, cultivation of artistic empathy and compassion, development of artistic analysis skills, collaboration, encouragement of self-discovery and self-expression. Keywords: creativity, empathy, imagination, Literature studies, artistic cognition, self-expression. Introduction Pedagogical requirements to the  quality of the  study process have always been high and evolving in attempt to discover, explore, facilitate the development of harmonic, comprehensively developed biopsychosocial personality. In the  tense setting of the  competence-based education reforms in the  21st century, discussion on the  role of artistic pedagogy, the cultural understanding of pupils, the self-expression in arts and the role of Literature subject in the learning process involves pedagogues, parents, https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.21 Daiga Celmiņa Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons 313Daiga Celmiņa. Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons pupils, and representatives of various professions. The  role of art and culture in today’s world has changed radically. We live in a  time where every member of society is simultaneously both consumer and creator of culture. Technological development imposes a  need to be creative. At the same time, the world we live in is becoming increasingly complex, we have ever fewer answers, and contemporary art is one of the ways we try to explore and understand our place in the world. Art is an important form of expression of creative freedom. In the 21st century there is a peculiar tendency that, on the one hand, populistic slogans like “The world continues to change dramatically, but education does not adapt quickly enough!” or “Pupils are not prepared to deal with the  challenges of the  modern world!” are gaining popularity. On the  other hand, many classical pedagogical conclusions are in a  kind of renaissance, as evidenced by discussions and polemics in both scientific journals and mass media. Even OECD researchers emphasize the importance of creativity and creation in reference to what Albert Einstein has said: “Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there ever will be to know and understand” (Fadel, et al, 2015). In some countries, teaching of art and design is included in general education as an important part of the  training in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEAM), i.e. practicing symbiosis of arts and these fields. Since art is an important resource for the development of intelligence and thought, it should not be taught by teachers by means of complementing positions according to the following principle: if a certain teacher needs more work load, a  teacher of geography, natural sciences or other subjects, after doing some additional training, can become, for example, a  teacher of visual arts (Bunkše, 2017). This idea can be supplemented by the  realization that even a  teacher of Literature should have a  high qualification because in order to understand and analyse literary fiction or to assess the artistic creativity of pupils the teacher needs in-depth knowledge of literary and other arts, a pedagogue’s qualification and experience, and knowledge of the  psychological processes of making a work of art, as well as the specific development features of the particular age group of the pupils. Latvian Doctor of Pedagogy Anita Skalberga (2012) emphasizes the  important role of Literature teachers, since literature is the  facilitator of personality development, understanding of the  world, aesthetic values and emotional intelligence, thus promoting engagement in culture. The Literature study process is related to the specific nature of literature as cognition of the art of words and to the ability of artistic cognition of 314 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 pupils at a given age. In Literature lessons it is essential that the cognitive activity becomes a personally important process for the pupil, so it would be advisable for the teacher to organize cooperation in pedagogically artistic activity and to engage pupils in artistically orientated cognitive activities aimed at creating, co-creating and development of a new subjectively and socially meaningful self-experience. The paper follows the  cultural-historical approach, the  operational and systemic approach, and the  following methods are used: theoretical analysis of pedagogical literature and discovering interrelations, analysis of self-experience. Literature as a study subject of the art of words Art as a part of intellectual culture includes the main areas of artistic activity, i.e. fine arts and music, literary fiction and dramatic arts, etc., but in the  broader sense art or artistry is associated with many areas of human life and activity. In Literature studies, it is important to observe the  specific nature of literature as art of words, where “work of literary fiction is a  special figuratively conditional text, its comprehension in its perception is closely related to feeling, imagination, associations” (Rudzītis, 2000). Jānis Anspaks (2006) acknowledges that the  fundaments of art pedagogy are reinforced by the notion that personality formation should be viewed as a whole, capturing in conjunction the emotional and the rational spheres, and he emphasizes that the  native language and literature lay the foundations for children’s artistic upbringing; therefore it is important to abandon the  over-rationalisation of the  Literature teaching process, focusing mainly on cultivation of imagination and feelings instead. One of the  responsibilities of teachers of native language and literature is to reveal the  magic of the  mother tongue, to deliver aesthetic pleasure and satisfaction of problem solving to pupils through literary fiction. Art subjects open up opportunities to expand pupils’ artistic horizons, as well as cause deep aesthetic experience and pleasure. “Fetishizing the scientific path in cognitive process and personality development, neglects emotional education, artistic education, and in-depth acquisition of intellectual and aesthetic values.” (Anspaks, 2006, 96). Ausma Špona (2006) recognizes that the effect of art and literary fiction on person occur with every element of it — word, sound, rhythm, colour, line, shape. “The artistic cognition allows pupils to explore themselves in a  creative activity, to comment of what they have seen and experienced in themselves (Špona, 2006, 116). The young person learns to understand things and phenomena only when these are personally important to them. 315Daiga Celmiņa. Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons It is essential that for the  pupil the  achievement of the  learning goal is interesting, that the pupil experiences feelings and emotions, that learning gives them satisfaction, that studies are enjoyed as a process of personality fulfilment and improvement of the self (Maslo, 2003). Each generation perceives a  text in its own way, therefore one should not think of any “absolutely correct” reading or determining anything unambiguous in the Literature study process. Understanding the meaning of literary works is also subject to dynamism, it develops and evolves. The more successful the teacher is in helping each pupil’s reader experience, the  more they will be able to understand the  literary work (Skalberga, 2012). With the  understanding of the  text, the  pupil also reveals his attitude to the  world, because the  emotional sphere plays a  major role in human life and thought. “The subject of literature is not a  course in literature theory and literature history. It consists mainly of literary fiction as works of art of words, and of the associated artistic potential. If ignored, Literature in school becomes a  general education subject and does not retain the  specific features of the  art of words. It preserves educational opportunities, but loses the opportunities of artistic upbringing orientation of values” (Rudzītis, 2000, 52). Despite the fact that the importance of Literature lessons in Secondary School is still under discussion in Latvia, Literature studies are now particularly topical there because: 1) nowadays the perception of texts has become more complicated in terms of content, form and emotional contradiction; 2) greater activity and stronger imagination are expected from the reader of modern literature; 3) for the text comprehension by a reader, not only the outside world experience is essential, but also their own inner world experience (including their wishes, fears, fantasies), which should also be developed and used; 4) in the  lessons of Literature, the  formation of the  world view of pupils is promoted and the  pupil as a  reader is being prepared to creatively use acquired knowledge and skills in their future lives; the competence of the pupil as a reader is expanded; 5) when reporting on what has been read, the  pupil expresses their attitude towards the world; 6) Artistic cognition in Literature lessons promotes the pupil’s general competence to work with abstractions, such as ideas, symbols, images (National Centre for Education). In his studies and recommendations on the  Literature teaching methodology, Jānis Rudzītis (2000, 111) emphasizes the  need for the development of the professional competence of Literature teachers, because 316 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  Literature teacher needs a  well-developed pedagogical thinking and pedagogically artistic thinking strategy in order to be able to encourage and develop the following in pupils: • aesthetic needs; • artistic perception (artistic associations related to it, co-creation, artistic emotional experience, artistic analysis); • artistic contact, also self-exploration (formation of value orientation); • catharsis as a self-decontamination of complex feelings in empathy; • artistic appreciation of the facets of the beautiful and the good. Interaction with art, including literature as art, is to be developed, cultivated. Lev Vygotsky (1965) emphasizes that the  effect of art is not “mechanical”, but rather reinforced by the  active participation of the  personality itself. Otherwise, the  intellectual aspect of art is lost. Furthermore, Jānis Anspaks (2006) says by a  scientific metaphor: “It is complicated to unleash in oneself the  highest manifestations of aesthetic activity, i.e. the  ability to very consciously protect, nurture and create beauty, to determine one‘s way to aesthetic self-upbringing, self-education and self-development, using the possibilities of exploration of the beautiful and the  true where the  word as an indispensable means of cognition, activity, interaction and creation is of a great importance. It is with a word that the cognitive exploration path begins and ceaselessly continues to grow, by discovering the uncharted, the unfelt, the unprecedented. The aesthetic, the beautiful, the artistic gives this miraculous power to a word” (Anspaks, 2006, 91). The former Latvian Minister of Culture from 2013 till 2019 Dace Melbārde in an interview at a Latvian Television show on culture said: “I believe that the role of education is not only to develop each individual’s personality, but also to preserve the  national values, to enrich them. All the  values that make Latvia  – the  Latvia. In general, the  country’s development is dominated by exact issues, economic development, which is, of course, understandable and reasonable, but the basis of any development, whether it is state development or personal development, there must be harmony, balance, for economic development is worth nothing if it does not make us to be cultural people, for example, or does not lead to cultural enrichment. Education should produce both intelligent and creative people. People who respect their cultural values and who are able to pass them on to future generations” (Verhoustinska & Kaminska, 2018). Learning is a lifelong process, both at school and outside of it, at work and at leisure time. Learning is individual but also social and cultural. Learning is also a cognitive process in which the social and cultural dimensions play important roles. This is important in all areas of learning, especially in areas related to language learning types, as linguistic communication is 317Daiga Celmiņa. Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons a  social and cultural process. Only the combination of the emotional and the  rational makes learning to be important (Maslo, 2003). A pupil from the last year of Secondary School, thinking of the importance of Literature studies, writes: “With the help of literature people get an idea of the world, other people, relationships, but most importantly –their inner world, their pains, doubts and experiences, about values acquired and sometimes lost.” (Inga [Name changed], 12th grade). There is no common understanding of pedagogy, education science, pedagogical psychology, art, or of the essence of culture in the world. Also, the teaching methodology is not based on any one universally productive learning model, but it drives the thinking of teachers so that, in accordance with their professional competence, they seek and find optimal ways of their cooperation with their pupils (Rudzītis, 2000, 46). Creativity in the learning process is tied with collaboration and interdisciplinarity, where understanding the  meaning of the  text, imagination, seeing the  actual issue, ability to learn independently, using reasoning skills in writing, and being open to new experiences that drive pupils towards subjective search for meaning are all essential. The  creative Literary tasks are not only related to logical, rational, analytical activity, for creative tasks help pupils to get involved in artistic-oriented cognitive activity that promotes problem-thinking, evokes associations, emotions, develops imagination, and is oriented towards awareness of values important to themselves and society, and towards self-discovery and self-expression in action. Therefore, the  authors of the  Latvian “School 2030” educational reform, who were seeking cross-disciplinary complementation of the Literature and Sport, and Literature and Physics subjects, could be advised to do it on pedagogically sound basis, by assessing the  experience of our national pedagogy in the  Literature teaching methodology, by giving the  literature teaching process an important role in the  realm of cultural awareness and taking into account the  specific and different nature of the  artistic knowledge process of the Literature studies from the process of intellectual cognition in subjects, such as Science, for example. One of the tasks of the Literature teacher is to develop self-activity and self-expression of pupils in an artistically directed cognitive action. Artistic cognition in Secondary School Literature lessons If the focus of the learning process is not on the content and the outcome of learning, but rather on the  individuality of the pupil’s personality and on cooperation, then the  essence of the  educational process is related to the approach of personality activity, where cognitive activity is the basis of the learning process. Jean Piaget also reminds the importance of a learning 318 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 process oriented towards the pupil’s internal and individual activity, where “the child always learns actively by interacting with their environment, creating ever more complex thought structures” (2002). Learning is one of the most complex human activities, the outcome of which depends not only on the ability to learn and on attitudes towards it, but also on the mental abilities altogether, on the attitudes and assistance of others, on the adequacy of teaching aids. Thus, learning is not just an activity of the mind, it is strongly influenced by non-intellectual processes, such as emotions, motives, interests (Žogla, 2001, 220). Cognition is traditionally explained as a  process of human creative activity, inseparably linked to the  social and historic experience which is a- reflection of objective reality in human consciousness. In the process of cognition, a person acquires new knowledge of the world on the basis of which the aims and motives of human activity arise. The basis of cognition is practical experience. Cognition as a  socially conditioned cultural and historical process cannot exist or develop beyond interaction and activity. In art pedagogy, the understanding of interplay between scientific and artistic cognition is essential in the  process of forming a  comprehensive personality. Jānis Anspaks (2006) points out that several types of cognition can be distinguished: the everyday, the artistic, and the scientific, in which the word has a leading role. Bringing the benchmark of scientific reference to the  forefront and leaving non-scientific cognition possibilities in the “shadow” lead to one-sidedness in the learning process. The revelation of the  scientific and artistic cognition features and the  defining of their interaction in the personality development during a learning process is very topical in art pedagogy, not forgetting that education is not just a rounded amount of knowledge, but one is encouraged to ensure a harmonious and balanced development. This also fully applies to the  choice of cognition styles and the  specialization of the  child (adolescent, youth, adult) in relevant cognition activities. “It is important to emphasize the  most essential difference between art and other forms of world cognition. If science captures the world scene in concepts, theories, abstract categories, then art expresses the world in images. Therefore, the (beautiful) perception and understanding of art begins with the  specific means of figurative thinking and with their perception. A character is a technique of inquisitive reproduction and generalization of the  beautiful from the  position of aesthetic ideal, thus reflecting the world in a distinctly perceptible, directly perceived form.” (Anspaks, 2006). Figurative thinking is needed in all forms of cognition, it is not only related to the field of art; the cognition process is unified; however, the  learning of each field is characterized by a  different choice of pedagogical means in the  teaching and upbringing process. 319Daiga Celmiņa. Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons Irēna Žogla (2001) also emphasizes in her studies that by understanding the  essence of studies, three types of cognition have to be compared: Practical cognition, Scientific cognition and Learning cognition. Practical cognition is learning by doing, it is always concrete and unique, repetition is based on the knowledge and skills already acquired. Scientific cognition is a  very targeted way of cognition, intense discovery of objectively new relations, rules. The  foundation for the  discovery of the  new is Learning cognition. A  Learning cognition is a  specially, purposefully organized, intense cognition method that takes place with the help of a  teacher and purposefully prepared teaching aids, it is the discovery of the subjectively new (Žogla, 2001, 223). All types of cognition are united by the  aim of discovering the  essence of things and phenomena, internal rules, interrelation of structural components for practical use of this knowledge or for acquiring new knowledge. In turn, Ausma Špona (2006) adds that Learning cognition is acquisition of subjectively new knowledge, skills and attitudes within a  specially organized pedagogical process where new, subjectively and socially significant self-experience arises. She points out that a  learning cognition can also be seen as an artistic cognition, since the  cognition is generally an intellectual process, where perception also takes place through the  senses, feelings, characters, concepts. The  artistic cognition allows the pupils to explore themselves in creative activity, to express their appreciation of the seen and experienced. The artistic cognition encourages both attitude and intellectual development by perceiving, analysing and understanding a work of art in a personally significant emotional experience. It forms a  habit of viewing, listening, acting creatively, analysing and emotionally perceiving a work of art, of contemplating traditional and art values. It is important to cultivate in pupils a need for art values, that is a skill to evaluate; to perceive a work of art; to create art values, which are components of educational content that ensure the  formation of positive attitudes towards art (Špona, 2006). The logical path of cognition (perception, imagined character, realization, application) is peculiar in the  study process, for learning is not only an activity of the mind, it is also strongly influenced by emotional processes, such as emotions, motives, interests. Based on pupils’ experience and abstract thinking, it is possible to achieve intensity in action. The learning process depends on what aspect of cognition is chosen as its basis. The essence of learning is that a theoretical or practical learning task can be solved only within the realistic possibilities of the pupil, respectively – based on the developed learning skills, knowledge of a particular subject or subject group, the  quality of the  development of cognition processes and attitude towards it (Žogla, 2001, 227). Doctor of Art Aija Freimane in 320 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 an interview on the  role of artistic cognition in education acknowledges that “Today the  ability to perceive and notice, the  ability to watch and reproduce is an important part of interdisciplinary education, innovation and collaboration between different professionals” (Bunkše, 2017). At Secondary School, within the  age group of 15 to 18-year olds), needs and cognitive development are associated with a new environment and requirements, as well as the  young person’s progress towards their profession, resulting in a need for certain behavioural, emotional and value autonomy. Autonomy of values means that in early youth there is a need and a  right to having their own opinions, even if these views are still in formation, and often very categorical (Šteinberga, 2013). The  Literature learning process offers great philosophical issues of life and a  path to forming, formulating and defending oneself and one’s opinions through literary fiction as an individual cognition action, as well as in cooperation, and encourages the  aesthetic needs of pupils in value-oriented learning process. Vilnis Purēns draws attention to the  importance of inquisitive interest during the  learning process and concludes that “In adolescence, inquisitive interests are characterized by operation with abstract phenomena, experiments with selection of interest object, domination of self-affirmation needs, need for awareness of ones’ independence, emphasis on the importance of outcome and social evaluation, orientation of interests towards humanitarian fields (Purēns, 2017). Another pupil of the last Secondary School year in their consideration of “My Searches and Discoveries in Literature,” emphasizes what is important for him in fiction, Literature lessons, and the  cultural space as a  whole: “I expect and seek an opportunity to manifest myself in the  cultural environment. It brings new experiences and perspectives; from it I have acquired both academic knowledge and life knowledge. I am looking for something more in culture and literature than just what can be useful for an essay in a  Literature lesson, but also for what develops my mind and makes my personality more intelligent. In the  end, I am simply looking for how to spend time meaningfully and develop myself. I have attended poetry readings, classical and alternative cinema and theatre performances, music concerts, art exhibitions. I am genuinely interested in the  creative part of humanity.” (Gundars [Name changed], 12th grade). Quality learning in Literature classes takes place if each pupil can develop their abilities and talents, find a  way of learning appropriate to their learning skills and traits, the  needs of the  pupils are taken into account in the learning process, and the teacher is a consultant, assistant, but the pupil is independent and mainly responsible for their own learning. The Literature learning process is not confined to logical, rational, analytical action, since pupils are involved in an imaginatively emotional, evaluative 321Daiga Celmiņa. Artistic Cognition in Secondary School Literature Lessons artistic cognition that promotes problem solving, encourages associations, develops imagination, directed to self-discovery and self-expression in action. Latvian painter Džemma Skulme, upon receiving the Purvītis Prize for a  lifetime contribution to art, said: “The mission of art is to expand fantasy and thought and to put the soul area in action” (Kušķe & Latvian Public Broadcasting, 2019). Conclusions The Literature study process develops pupils’ artistic perception and imaginative thinking, pupils’ imagination, encourages artistic empathy, empathic experience, develops artistic analysis skills, critical thinking, co- operation, promoting creativity, self-exploration and self-expression, and fostering national identity awareness in the global cultural space. The artistic cognition of Literature study process is aimed at both acquiring new knowledge and skills and at promoting creativity and creation in pupils. Creativity in the Literature lessons as an art subject can take different forms: as creativity and artistic creation, as well as critical thinking and creative problem solving. Forms of thought are not only concepts, judgments, conclusions, but also images (imaginary models) and thought experiments. Thus, learning activity can be both reproductive and creative, and it is the  artistically orientated cognition process where the  focus is on the Literature learning process dealing with problems, analysis and synthesis using fiction and other arts through interdisciplinary principle. Jānis Anspaks (2006) and Jānis Rudzītis (2000) have made a  major contribution to Latvian artistic cognition research and Latvian art pedagogy, including literature as the basis of art of words, emphasizing the importance of the  Literature teacher’s professional competence and reminding that it is essential in Literature learning process to recognize the specific features of literature as an art of words where artistic cognition allows pupils to explore themselves in creative, personally meaningful activity, discovering and expressing their attitude towards the world, developing and cultivating their intellect. Literature teacher in Literature lessons encourages pupils to engage in artistically oriented cognition activity that is appropriate to pupils’ de- velopment needs and abilities, where it is important to encourage pupils’ aesthetic needs in value-oriented learning process, to develop pupils’ artis- tic perception and imaginative thinking, imagination, to encourage artistic empathy and empathic experience, to develop artistic analysis skills, co- operation, to promote pupils’ self-exploration and self-expression. 322 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 References Anspaks, J. (2006). Mākslas pedagoģija. 2. daļa. Metodoloģija. Teorija. Prakse. [Art Pedagogy. Part 2. Methodology. Theory. Practice]. Rīga, Latvia: RaKa. Bunkše, I. (2017). Intervija ar Andri Teimani. Akadēmija un mākslas izglītība [Interview with Andris Teimanis. Academy and Arts Education]. Studija, 109, 14–18. Fadel, C., Bialik, M. & Trilling, B. (2017). Četru dimensiju izglītība [Four-dimensional education: The  Competencies learners] (Lielvārds, Trans.), Rīga, Latvia: Lielvārds. (Original work published 2015). Kušķe, B., & Latvian Public Broadcasting. (2019). Interese par visu skubina nesašļukt. Saruna ar mākslinieci Džemmu Skulmi [Interest for everything motivates to not give up. Interview with artist Džemma Skulme]. Latvian Public Broadcasting. Available from https://bit.ly/2Ei8X2M Maslo, E. (2003). Mācīšanās spēju pilnveide [Improvement of learning abilities]. Rīga, Latvia: RaKa. Piaget, J. (2002). Bērna intelektuālā attīstība. [La construction du réel chez l’enfant] (Meinerte, S., Trans.) Rīga, Latvia: Pētergailis. (Original work published 1937). Purēns, V. (2017). Kā attīstīt kompetenci [How to develop proficiency]. (43–106). Riga, Latvia: RaKa. Rudzītis, J. (2000). Literatūras mācības skolā. Metodisks rosinātājlīdzeklis esošajiem un topošajiem literatūras skolotājiem. [Literature studies at School. Methodological and motivational tool for present and future Literature teachers]. (46–121). Rīga, Latvia: RaKa. Skalberga, A. (2012). Vidusskolēna literārās kompetences veidošanās [Formation of High- School Student’s Literary Competence]. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from DSpace. LU database (URI Identifier https://dspace.lu.lv/dspace/handle/7/4834). Špona, A. (2006). Audzināšanas process teorijā un praksē [Upbringing Process in Theory and Practice]. (116–117). Rīga, Latvia: RaKa. Šteinberga, A. (2013). Pedagoģiskā psiholoģija [Pedagogical psychology]. (115–125). Rīga, Latvia: RaKa. Verhoustinska, H. (Writer), & Kaminska, Z. (Director). (2018, November 30th). Valdība apstiprina jaunu izglītības standartu. Ko tas nozīmē skolām? [Government approves a  new standard of education. What does this mean for schools?]. [Television series episode] In LTV1 (Producer), Kultūršoks. Rīga, Latvia: Latvian Television. Vygotsky, L. S. (1965). Psichologija iskusstva [Art psychology]. Moskva, Russia: Iskusstvo. Žogla, I. (2001). Didaktikas teorētiskie pamati [Theoretical Background of Didactic]. Rīga, Latvia: RaKa. 323Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 WHAT DO TEACHERS DO TO PROMOTE STUDENTS’ READING LITERACY AT 4TH GRADE? – EVIDENCE FROM IEA PIRLS 2016 STUDY Antra Ozola University of Latvia, Latvia Andrejs Geske University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Reading skills which a  child learns from an early age are crucial for student’s success or failure in subsequent school years as literacy is closely related to all other school subjects. Learning to read and promotion of reading plays an important role in the development of the personality and attitudes of the child. Teacher is the one responsible for applied techniques of teaching and learning to read, and methods that are used purposefully lead students to the  understanding of a  text. It is of great importance for teacher to have a  wide arsenal of diverse educational methods and experiences. Primary teachers should have a  broad theoretical knowledge base and also be able to teach different reading strategies to help students to reach their full potential as readers. An important factor in developing attitudes towards reading is the  ability of reading literacy teachers to get their students to become interested in both – literary works as a source of information and joy, and reading as an activity in general. The aim of the  study is to find out what activities the  primary school teachers in Latvia apply to promote their students’ reading literacy and how those methods relate to students’ achievements in reading. In the  study a  statistical group comparison is performed using IEA PIRLS 2016 data from teacher questionnaires along with information about student achievement. Key words: PIRLS, Reading literacy, Reading teachers, Teaching methods, 4th grade. Introduction Teachers play a  major role in development of students’ reading skills and habits (Jose, Raja, 2011). Subsequently reading literacy is a foundation of a  further academic success (Delgadová, 2015). To promote students’ https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.22 Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ ... 324 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 reading skills teachers use a  large variety of different methods some of them being more effective than others (Allington, Johnston, 2000). Similarly to other large scale education assessments the  IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study) study also collects information about teachers work patterns in class. Those patterns and methods can be analyzed along with the data about students reading achievement to see how application of different approaches is linked to achievement scores of 4th graders in PIRLS test. Aim of the Study The aim of the  study is to find out what activities the primary school teachers in Latvia apply to promote their students’ reading literacy and how those methods relate to students’ achievements in reading. The research question is: What teaching strategies relate to higher 4th grade students’ achievement in PIRLS 2016 reading literacy assessment? Methodology For the  analysis Latvian data from PIRLS 2016 were used. PIRLS is a  reading literacy study targeting young students in their fourth year of schooling and being conducted internationally every five years (Mullis, Martin, 2015). PIRLS not only assesses students’ reading literacy, but also employs surveys of students, their parents, teachers and school principals to collect a  valuable information about the  context factors. These surveys provide the  data which permits linking student assessment results to certain background characteristics and drawing conclusions about the influence of the surrounding environment on the results. In Latvia around 4000 students, their parents and teachers, as well as school principals from both Latvian language instruction and Russian language instruction schools participated in PIRLS 2016 study. The centerpoint of PIRLS achievement scale is set constant at 500 points and represents the mean of the overall achievement distribution in the first cycle of the study at 2001 (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). The  standard deviation of the  PIRLS scale is 100, and the  scale is kept constant in each administration of the study. For this study the data from PIRLS 2016 teacher questionnaire were used along with students’ reading achievement scores from the test. The analysis of the data was performed using the statistical software IBM SPSS 22 and 325Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske. What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ ... IEA IDB Analyzer. Descriptive statistics (frequency, means, standard errors and percentages) and significance tests were performed. Results For the sake of answering the research question in this study the data from two questions from PIRLS 2016 teacher questionnaire were analyzed. The first question of interest was: How often do you do the following in teaching reading to this class? The list of methods included in the question is provided in the 1st column of Table 1. Teachers could pick a frequency of application for each method from options: • Every or almost every lesson, • About half the lessons, • Some lessons, • Never. For analytical purposes authors grouped teachers’ answers in following two groups of comparison: 1. Every or almost every lesson, 2. Less frequently than almost every lesson. Table 1 shows percentages of students whose teachers answered accordingly and average scale scores in PIRLS test for each group of students. The last column in Table 1 indicates if the difference in achievement scores between the  groups is statistically significant. For example, 28 percent of students have teachers who provide materials that are appropriate for the  reading levels of individual students at every or almost every lesson, and reading achievement level of this group or students is significantly higher than the average achievement of students whose teachers use this individual approach less often. The opposite relation can be noticed for providing an individual feedback for each student. Students whose teachers give individual feedback less often have higher test results. But one must be cautious with the  cause- effect interpretation here. Most likely these results of the analysis indicated that lower performing students are needier for the individual feedback and therefore are given it more frequently. Teachers’ frequently linking new content to students’ prior knowledge and encouraging students to develop their understandings of the  text are associated with higher student reading achievement. It can be acknowledged as positive fact that about 80 percent of 4th grade students in Latvia experience this very often. 326 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 1. Comparison of frequency of usage of different teaching methods with the average reading achievement scores Every or almost every lesson Less frequently than every lesson Difference statistically significant Percent of students Average scale score (s.e.) Percent of students Average scale score (s.e.) Provide reading materials that match the students’ interests 49 560 (2,9) 51 556 (2,7) No Provide materials that are appropriate for the reading levels of individual students 28 563 (3,1) 72 555 (2,2) Yes Link new content to students’ prior knowledge 78 561 (2,0) 22 546 (4,0) Yes Encourage students to develop their understandings of the text 84 560 (1,9) 16 545 (4,4) Yes Encourage student discussions of texts 84 559 (2,0) 16 550 (5,0) No Encourage students to challenge the opinion expressed in the text 26 562 (3,6) 74 556 (2,2) No Use multiple perspectives (among students and texts) to enrich understanding 42 562 (3,0) 58 554 (3,0) No Give students time to read books of their own choosing 16 554 (5,1) 84 559 (1,8) No Provide an individual feedback for each student 36 553 (3,0) 64 561 (2,0) Yes The second question from the PIRLS teacher questionnaire of focus for this study was: How often do you ask the  students to do the  following things to help develop reading comprehension skills or strategies? The list of skills and strategies included in the question is provided in the 1st column of Table 2. Teachers could choose an answer from the  following list of frequencies: • Every or almost every day, • Once or twice a week, • Once or twice a month, • Never or almost never. 327Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske. What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ ... And as previously authors of this paper have grouped teachers’ answers in following two groups of comparison: 1. Every or almost every day, 2. Less often than every day. Three indications from Table 2 are most noteworthy  – only about 20 percent of students are frequently asked to compare what they have read with other things they have read, make predictions about what will happen next in the  text they are reading and determine the  author’s perspective or intention in the  text. Those 4th grade students whose teachers often ask them to practice the  approaches mentioned above show significantly higher results in reading literacy. The results show that application of these methods should be encouraged in primary grades in Latvia. Table 2. Comparison of frequency of promotion of different reading skills and strategies with the average reading achievement scores Every or almost every day Less often than every day Difference statistically significant Percent of students Average scale score (s.e.) Percent of students Average scale score (s.e.) Locate information within the text 80 560 (1,9) 20 550 (3,8) Yes Identify the main ideas of what they have read 71 559 (2,1) 29 555 (3,7) No Explain or support their understanding of what they have read 65 562 (2,1) 35 550 (3,0) Yes Compare what they have read with ex- periences they have had 50 561 (2,7) 50 554 (2,5) No Compare what they have read with other things they have read 20 569 (4,0) 80 555 (2,0) Yes Make predictions about what will happen next in the text they are reading 22 566 (4,2) 78 556 (2,0) Yes Make generalizations and draw inferences based on what they have read 59 559 (2,6) 41 556 (3,2) No Describe the style or structure of the text they have read 10 566 (5,9) 90 557 (1,8) No Determine the author’s perspective or intention 21 566 (4,5) 79 556 (1,9) Yes 328 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 There has been a lot of research in the field devoted to finding the most optimal class size (e.g., De Paola et al., 2013; Hoxby, 2000; Bonesrønning, 2003) and providing various results. In this study the  authors analyzed how is the  class size linked to teachers’ application of different methods of teaching reading. Table 3 shows what percentage of students in each of three categories of class size experience certain teaching approaches every or almost every lesson. For example, providing materials that are appropriate for the  reading levels of individual students is more often practiced in small classrooms  – approximately 45 percent of students who are studying in a  class with no more than 12 classmates experience this method from their reading teacher every or almost every lesson. Comparatively in classes of more that 24 children only 21 percent of students receive individually targeted reading materials almost every lesson. Since according to previously mentioned results of the  study this method is related to higher average reading achievement of 4th graders (as shown in Table 1) in this case large class size is not an advantage. Table 3. Use of different teaching methods depending on class size Every or almost every lesson Percent of students Class size up to 12 students Class size from 13 to 24 students Class size bigger than 24 students Provide reading materials that match the students’ interests 47,9% 56,9% 41,4% Provide materials that are appropriate for the reading levels of individual students 44,5% 29,8% 21,4% Link new content to students’ prior knowledge 68,3% 74,6% 83,5% Encourage students to develop their understandings of the text 80,8% 82,6% 87,6% Encourage student discussions of texts 89,5% 82,0% 83,3% Encourage students to challenge the opinion expressed in the text 25,9% 18,6% 33,6% Use multiple perspectives (among students and texts) to enrich understanding 47,9% 35,0% 47,8% Give students time to read books of their own choosing 9,6% 20,3% 12,7% Provide an individual feedback for each student 53,4% 43,6% 21,7% Results of similar analysis are presented in Table 4. It can be noticed that fewer students form small classes are frequently asked to make predictions about what will happen next in the text they are reading than 329Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske. What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ ... their counterparts from large groups. A recommendation can be drawn that teachers who work with small number of students should use this approach of promoting reading literacy development more often since it has showed a positive relationship with achievement level as shown in Table 2. Table 4. Use of tasks for development of reading comprehension skills or strategies depending on class size Every or almost every day Percent of students Class size up to 12 students Class size from 13 to 24 students Class size bigger than 24 students Locate information within the text 85,6% 75,8% 83,6% Identify the main ideas of what they have read 64,7% 70,3% 73,5% Explain or support their understanding of what they have read 67,3% 62,0% 67,8% Compare what they have read with experiences they have had 42,1% 47,9% 55,3% Compare what they have read with other things they have read 16,6% 16,3% 26,0% Make predictions about what will happen next in the text they are reading 13,0% 18,2% 28,4% Make generalizations and draw inferences based on what they have read 58,2% 56,2% 62,4% Describe the style or structure of the text they have read 11,8% 10,1% 10,0% Determine the author’s perspective or intention 15,5% 16,0% 28,5% Contrary to results of a  study carried out by Ting and Spyros (2017) about class size effects on PIRLS results in Romania, analysis of Latvian data done by authors of this paper show that bigger number of students in class on average is connected to higher academic performance (see Figure  1). This result provides a  support for a  need of further school optimization process in Latvia. An OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) TALIS (Teaching and Learning International Survey) 2018 study has indicated that the  population of teachers in Latvia is on average a  little older than in other countries which took part in the study (OECD, 2019). Knowing this, authors of the  paper performed a  data analysis to capture if there is a  difference in application of methods for teaching reading depending on a teachers’ age. 330 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 1. Reading achievement and class size Table 5 presents Latvian 4th grade students split in three groups according to the age of their teacher and what percentage of students in each of these three groups experience a particular pedagogical approach every or almost every lesson. The  results of the  analysis display that with age it is more common for teachers to link new content to students’ prior knowledge and to provide an individual feedback for each student. More than a half (55  percent) of students whose reading teacher is of age 60 or higher receive reading materials that match the students’ interests every or almost every lesson comparatively to 34 percent of such students whose teachers are younger than 39. On the  other hand, younger teachers encourage student discussions of texts even more than their older counterparts even though this method in general seems to be very popular in Latvia. Table 5. Percentage of students who experience different methods according to teacher’s age Every or almost every lesson Percent of students Teachers’ age up to 39 years Teachers’ age from 40 to 59 years Teachers’ of age of 60 or higher Provide reading materials that match the students’ interests 34,2% 50,2% 55,0% Provide materials that are appropriate for the read- ing levels of individual students 19,6% 29,6% 29,2% Link new content to students’ prior knowledge 56,7% 79,2% 86,4% Encourage students to develop their understand- ings of the text 84,1% 83,0% 91,0% 331Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske. What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ ... Every or almost every lesson Percent of students Teachers’ age up to 39 years Teachers’ age from 40 to 59 years Teachers’ of age of 60 or higher Encourage student discussions of texts 93,6% 82,6% 80,0% Encourage students to challenge the opinion ex- pressed in the text 23,2% 26,5% 25,8% Use multiple perspectives (among students and texts) to enrich understanding 52,7% 36,7% 56,5% Give students time to read books of their own choosing 18,8% 14,9% 16,1% Provide an individual feedback for each student 23,4% 36,1% 42,4% Differences in approaches of teaching reading comprehension skills and strategies depending on teachers’ age are illustrated in Table 6. Teachers of older age more often ask their students to: • Locate information within the text, • Identify the main ideas of what they have read, • Compare what they have read with other things they have read, • Make generalizations and draw inferences based on what they have read, and • Determine the author’s perspective or intention. In general, it can be witnessed that a larger proportion of students who are taught by teachers of at least 60 years of age experience meaningful tasks which enhance development of their reading literacy skills more often. Table 6. Percentage of students who experience different tasks for development of reading comprehension skills or strategies according to teacher’s age Every or almost every day Percent of students Teachers’ age up to 39 years Teachers’ age from 40 to 59 years Teachers’ of age of 60 or higher Locate information within the text 62,9% 83,4% 81,6% Identify the main ideas of what they have read 60,8% 68,9% 86,8% Explain or support their understanding of what they have read 44,4% 69,4% 63,4% Compare what they have read with experiences they have had 52,5% 49,2% 52,7% Compare what they have read with other things they have read 5,4% 20,3% 32,1% 332 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Every or almost every day Percent of students Teachers’ age up to 39 years Teachers’ age from 40 to 59 years Teachers’ of age of 60 or higher Make predictions about what will happen next in the text they are reading 16,5% 22,0% 25,0% Make generalizations and draw inferences based on what they have read 44,2% 60,1% 66,0% Describe the style or structure of the text they have read 8,0% 9,0% 17,6% Determine the author’s perspective or intention 17,9% 18,3% 36,3% Results of this study show situation in Latvia and therefore cannot be generalized internationally. Authors of the  paper also note that for more precise interpretation of results an in-depth analysis should be performed in further studies by controlling effects of different context factors, e.g. geographical placement of school, school type etc. Conclusions Main findings of the study show that: • Frequent use of some teaching methods lead to higher reading achievement. • On average the  achievement level in Latvia is higher in bigger classes. • Class size also determines application of some reading development methods. • Use of different pedagogical methods is partly determined by teachers age (length of service and therefore – experience). Based on results of the  study following recommendations for teachers can be drawn. It is suggested that reading teachers of primary grades in Latvia should do the following as frequent as possible: • Provide materials that are appropriate for the  reading levels of individual students; • Link new content to students’ prior knowledge; • Encourage students to develop their understandings of the text. It is recommended for all subject teachers as frequent as possible to ask their students to: • Locate information within the text; • Explain or support their understanding of what they have read; • Compare what they have read with other things they have read; 333Antra Ozola, Andrejs Geske. What Do Teachers Do to Promote Students’ ... • Make predictions about what will happen next in the  text they are reading; • Determine the author’s perspective or intention. References Allington, R. L., Johnston, P. H. (2000). What Do We Know about Effective Fourth- Grade Teachers and Their Classrooms? CELA Research Report. Retrieved from https:// eric.ed.gov/?id=ED447494. Bonesrønning, H. (2003). Class Size Effects on Student Achievement in Norway: Patterns and Explanations. Southern Economic Journal. https://doi.org/69.952-965. 10.2307/1061660. De Paola, M., Michela Ponzo, P., Scoppa, V., Ponzo, M. (2013). Class size effects on student achievement: heterogeneity across abilities and fields. Education Economics. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2010.511811. Delgadová, E. (2015). Reading Literacy as One of the  Most Significant Academic Competencies for the University Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 178. 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.145. Hoxby, C. (2000). The Effects of Class Size on Student Achievement: New Evidence from Population Variation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(4), 1239-1285. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2586924. Jose, G. R., Raja, B. W. D. (2011). Teachers’ Role In Fostering Reading Skill: Effective And Successful Reading. i-manager’s Journal on English Language Teaching, 1(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.26634/jelt.1.4.1599. Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O. (Eds.). (2015). PIRLS 2016 Assessment Framework (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/framework.html. National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). PIRLS and ePIRLS Results. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/pirls2016/tables/pirls2016_table01.asp. OECD. (2019). TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners. OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en. Ting, S., Spyros, K. (2017). Class size effects on reading achievement in Europe: Evidence from PIRLS. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 53, 98–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. stueduc.2017.04.001. 334 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE STUDENTS` VISUAL LITERACY FOR KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION IN THE HISTORY OF LATVIA AND THE WORLD Liene Ozoliņa University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The publication aims to present research on the integration of visual literacy in the learning process and its influence on students` knowledge construction. Mainly in the  acquisition of History of Latvia and the World but also related subjects, that is topical in context with ongoing educational reform in Latvia. Conclusions are based on qualitative data gathered directly from educators of primary and secondary education who developed and approbated assignments for pupils, which includes visual information sources. Keywords: visual literacy, knowledge construction, the  History of Latvia, the  History of World, educational reform, primary education, secondary education. Introduction The concept of “visual literacy” applies to visual sources of information that have emerged in different periods as a  result of the  life activities of different people and related to different branches of science — starting with drawings on the walls of the cave, which date back to the prehistoric period, ending with images as elements of multimodal texts created using contemporary technologies. Those technologies make possible the  production of visual information sources at large volumes and are rapidly evolving. Thus, visual sources can be offered to audiences measured in millions. Therefore, a  situation arises where the  daily life of people, including pupils, is saturated with various visual information sources. That affects how people perceive information and the  ability of people to analyze it critically. The  abovementioned perception and ability are topical both in the science of history to analyze/interpret visual sources of history and in pedagogical science in order to develop critical thinking and construct knowledge. Hence visual literacy is necessary not only to study, develop critical thinking, and to construct knowledge, for example about history, but also to avoid demagogy and propaganda, which is often carried https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.23 Liene Ozoliņa The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... 335Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... out with the help of various modern media which contain essential visual elements. Considering the topicality of this research – the research work in Latvia, which analyzes the integration of visual literacy in the teaching and learning of history, as well as the activities directed at the development of didactics of history in general, are rare and fragmentary. Often, the  integration of visual information sources in the  learning process is considered indirectly in the  research, or these researches are devoted not to the  theory of information source analysis but its application1. In an article and underlying research, the  visual literacy is being analyzed as a  tool which can be used to develop the  ability to interpret images (visual sources of history) to construct knowledge about the history of Latvia and the World. Therefore, the concept of “knowledge construction” also had to be taken into consideration. Concept know- ledge construction can be briefly explained as the idea that understanding and remembering information is improved if a  person actively tries to process and use the  new knowledge in different ways, rather than when one is offered a  ready-made informative text intended to be memorized mechanically. Actively using the new knowledge in different ways creates links between the already known and the new information, and it increases the  possibility that the  new information is going to be included within the pupil’s perception of the world. For example, a pupil not only knows the  features of a  totalitarian regime but is also able to identify them in modern political systems. The research problem was defined as such: integration of visual literacy for knowledge construction in the  process of learning Latvian and world history. The study aimed to explore how visual literacy promotes students` knowledge construction about the  history of Latvia and the  World. The research design that was used to achieve this aim was action research. In the  research literature, no clear concepts were found on how to develop visual literacy by facilitating the  construction of knowledge and how to integrate them into the  learning process of Latvian and world history. Therefore, the research was designed as an interdisciplinary study, including both the  perspectives of history and pedagogy and outlined: 1) the elements of approaches (in the context of Frank Serafini’s developed approaches: Art Theory and Critic2, Grammar of Visual Design, Media 1 It should be noted that a similar situation in the education environment of Latvia has developed in relation to the didactics of history in general – it lacks a comprehensive, systematic and theoretically grounded approach. 2 Which is related to Erwin Panofsky’s iconological method used by historians to analyze artworks as sources of history. 336 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Literacies (Medienkompetenz) (Serafini 2011)); 2) theoretical examples of assignments (corresponding to “Revised Bloom Taxonomy” (Leslie 2016)) and analysis of assignments which were practically developed and implemented during the study; 3) elements of the evaluation criteria that can be developed. The research focus was on exploring the views expressed in theory and confronting them with the  situation in the  field of visual literacy in the  teaching of history in Latvia. So, the  research was not limited to theory studies, as it involved collaboration between professionals in the field and practical steps were taken to identify how visual literacy is currently integrated into the history learning process in Latvia and whether and how it is/can be improved. Methodology Methods of data collection used in the research are the content analysis to study the theory of visual literacy in history and pedagogy in the world and Latvia. Secondly, the opinion of the university students – teachers of history and teachers who teach history-related subjects (social sciences, politics, philosophy, cultural studies, literature) – has been studied through the survey. Discussion to explore the theory and draw conclusions about the visual literacy in the  Latvian educational environment, together with practicing history teachers and history teachers in training, as well as other professionals working in history-related institutions (within the University of Latvia, Faculty of History and Philosophy). Assignment development, with the  aim, based on the  conclusions of this discussion, to develop assignments and to implement the  acquisition of visual literacy integration in the  history learning process. Document analysis (different assignments) to obtain data on the  effectiveness, positive, and negative aspects of the assignments. Focus group discussion with the  participants of the  research process to evaluate the  possibilities provided by visual literacy in the construction of knowledge. Action research was chosen because it is directed to cooperation. The  cooperation took place between the  researcher3 and the  teachers  – practitioners (and university students at the same time) – the participants of the study, whose study plan included a course within which the research was implemented and whom themselves work in an educational institution. The cooperation also took place between the participants of the study and 3 Who pursued some of the  lectures in the  study course “Vēst5140: Analysis of Historical Sources” and practically works with pupils in primary and secondary education. 337Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... the pupils they taught and with whom approbated the assignments created during the lecture cycle. The research process lasted about six months and consisted of five stages: 1) theory studies and preparation for practice (conducting part of the lecture course during which the research was conducted); 2) work with teachers – university students during the lecture course (lecture, seminars, reflection, assignment development, and implementation); 3) mentoring university students in their work with their pupils; 4) data processing and reporting to formulate and disseminate knowledge. Results Theoretical framework The theoretical framework of this research was developed, and its summary is offered further in this article structured as follows: visual literacy as a  theoretical problem and research topic; approaches to integrating visual literacy into the  teaching process of Latvian and world history; knowledge construction as a  concept and its topicality in the Latvian education environment. Visual literacy as a theoretical problem and research topic Topical concept of visual literacy and related semantic fields in the 20th and 21st century have been analyzed in English and German research literature. This research literature offers many designations, which can be attributed to visual literacy4. In the  Latvian educational environment, this concept (visual literacy) is relatively recent; thus, the discussion about the  use of terminology is still ongoing in some ways. In this research, the  concept of visual literacy (vizuālā pratība) was applied due to it being used in the  educational environment of Latvia (Gorbāns 2010). It can be briefly defined as “ability to interpret images and create new images to communicate ideas and concepts” (Stokes 2002, 10). Also, it must be added that the  alternative use of this concept is being used in the  educational environment of Latvia. The  concept of visual literacy (vizuālizpratne) has been adopted in the Latvian language as “a complex 4 For example, “Bildliteralität”, “visual competence”, “visuelle Kompetenz”, “image competence”, “Bildkompetenz”, “visual education”, “visuelle Bildung”, “visual learning”, “visuelles Lernen”. These designations can be attributed to close standing semantic fields and often are used as synonyms (Hug 2012). More detailed explanation and analysis of concepts can be found in the  Masters` thesis “The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction in the  History of Latvia and the World”. (Ozoliņa 2018, 10–13). 338 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 compound of sub-competencies for the reception and production of images, as well as reflection of these processes.” (Friče 2019, 142). This concept is used because visual literacy in conjunction with concepts used in Latvian to describe literacy (such as “izpratība,” “rakstītpratība,” “pratība”) “is too narrow a concept, and it is necessary to define it as a visual competence to cover all attributed to it. [..] as a competence that encompasses knowledge, skills, and attitudes and is more freely applicable to different fields.” (Avotiņa 2019, 37)5. Integrating visual literacy in the  learning process evaluation criteria and guidelines should be developed to identify whether a  person can work with visual information sources qualitatively. Criteria must be relevant to the education of the 21st century, so there should be defined achievable results. The  achievable results after which it is possible to determine the level of visual literacy should not be simplified. For example, the capability of recognizing the works of specific artists is not an absolute indicator of visual literacy but only refers to a specific element of it. Developing visual literacy requires to take in to account several elements. Firstly, the development of the ability to recognize, classify and perceive the direct meaning and essence of perceived visual information. Secondly, it requires developing the  ability to work with and interpret visual information sources qualitatively. For example, analyzing a  visual information source in the  context with an era in which it was created. Thirdly, use the information obtained by linking it with either emotions or cognitive activities with the purpose of understanding previously acquired information, confronting with other sources of information, and creating something new. Fourth, it is necessary to develop the ability to share with the newly created unit, to form and defend their reasoned opinion. Criteria that describe the acquisition of visual literacy can be defined as such: firstly, uses digital technologies to find and process visual information sources, as well as can identify the  types and volumes of sources that will be needed to achieve the goal. Secondly, can interpret, analyze, and evaluate visual materials, as well as the sources from which these materials were derived and authors’ motivation. Understands how and why a visual source of information has been created, as well as what it implies. Knows and can apply the strategies necessary for both internal and external source criticism. Third, can use visual sources of information to communicate, as well as creates new sources of visual information. (Ozoliņa 2018, 14–15, 17–18) 5 This use of concept was not included into the theoretical framework of research due to it being published after the research was already finished. 339Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... Approaches to integrating visual literacy into the teaching process of Latvian and world history The English and German research literature connected with the analysis of visual information sources contains a wide range of research. However, the  problem of integrating theoretical research into pedagogical activity and conducting empirical research still exists today. In 2015, it was pointed out that research on visual information sources in teaching methodology is rare and that researchers and professionals in the field often have to adapt their methodological solutions from similar disciplines (Hecke 2015, 179). The problem of no consensus on the use of the concept and possibilities of integrating it in education can be linked with concepts “visual literacy” contradictory nature. On the  one hand, it is a  multidimensional concept which is topical in many fields of knowledge and contexts. For example, “aesthetics, anatomy of the  eye, body language, cognitive psychology, communication theory, cultural anthropology, instructional technology, mental imagery, neurophysiology, perceptual development, psycholinguistics, semantics, and visual perception.” (Michelson 2017). So the desire to make visual information source analysis interdisciplinary is logical in order to avoid misunderstandings, especially in the  primary and secondary school. On the  other hand, in this research, the  process of integrating visual information sources, specifically in the field of history teaching and learning, was essential. In order to understand how it is possible to integrate visual information sources in history teaching and learning process, it is necessary to find points of contact between, firstly, approaches and methods that are topical in the field of academic history, secondly, to what extent and how these approaches and methods can be integrated into general education. Essential approaches to research are analyzed as complementary: Grammar of Visual Design, Media Literacies; Medienenkompetenz, Art Theory, and Critics. According to Frank Serafini, who defined these approaches: “provide teachers with diverse lenses through which to focus students’ attention to visual aspects of the multimodal texts they encounter. “(Serafini 2011, 343). The grammar of Visual Design – the  author proposes to structure this approach around three essential elements: composition, perspective, and visual symbols. The  first two elements of this approach are in line with the first level of the iconological method6 or pre-geographical description. 6 The  method developed by Ervin Panofsky and other so-called Warburg`s school representatives, they insisted that one does not have to put up with a  formal approach to the  analysis of a  work of art (by analyzing only style, composition, color), but the analytical practice must be developed and artwork used as a source of history. 340 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Using this approach and its analogy with the iconological method, one can master basic concepts, develop the  skills to verbally express the  visible elements – objects, events, artistic style features. It makes possible further analysis of the source of visual information, which, in the case of history, is related to the exploration of the context of the creation of the artwork. Media Literacies / Medienenkompetenz – this approach corresponds to the  second level of the  iconological method or iconographic analysis. Applying it, it develops the ability to understand, question, and critically evaluate different types of sources in different contexts. Understand the  ways, techniques, and goals with which the  message contained in the  source is created. From the  perspective of the  iconological method, artistic motives, or combinations of them, should be linked to different themes, concepts, identifying specific scenes and allegories. Attention should be paid to how the particular theme, the concept was depicted in the respective historical period – it is necessary to expand the knowledge of the specifics of historical periods and traditions of representation in this historical period. So it also develops the  ability to choose the  source of information according to the situation or the goal. Art Theory and Critics – this approach is modeled based on the iconological method, offering educators to use the  structure of it as a  framework to develop pupils’ understanding of the  visual elements of multimodal texts. In the  context of the  previous approaches, the  first two levels of the iconological method were described. The third level of the iconological method aims to make possible the interpretation of the meaning and content of the work of art. It is done by using information obtained during the first two levels of analysis. Visual information source in history science is seen as an expression of the attitude of the people of the historical era towards the world. Therefore, at this level, it is possible to determine the historical context of the  artwork, its message, and underlying values. In order to determine previously mentioned, extensive knowledge of history is needed. It should be noted that in the  research literature the  direct adoption of the  iconological method at primary and secondary school level is not evaluated positively because this method is too advanced and specific to the  level of general education (Schreiber 2004, 60). However, if the structure and elements of this method are qualitatively integrated into the learning process, they can contribute to good results. Knowledge construction as a concept and its topicality in Latvian education environment “Knowledge construction” is a  contemporary concept in the  modern world and Latvian education environment, where the  essence is that the pupil uses facts, information received and builds knowledge. 341Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... One of the fundamental insights underlying the concept is that human thinking processes work so that new information is associated with already known information as well as personal experience. The process of capturing and processing new information can give a  new perspective on person’s existing knowledge, supplementing the new information with details, and building a  relationship (links) between the  already known and newly acquired information. The  function of these activities is to help a  person reformulate the new knowledge or to restructure the existing knowledge, reaching a  deeper level of understanding. Understanding the  new information and the ability to remember it is enhanced if a person actively participates in the  knowledge construction process and tries to process and use the new knowledge in different ways. When a person works with new information, constructs knowledge, creates new and changes existing associations that ensure that the  human knowledge structure changes and improves7. Above mentioned links between the  already known and the  newly discovered information ensure that the  new information is included within the persons` perception of the world8. With the qualitative formation of such links, a  more complex and better integrated cognitive structure is created in the  human mind, which facilitates the  process of remembering, the ability to recall the information (After King 1994, 339). The knowledge construction process can be characterized by several elements and activities that are also typical of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, et al., 1956) and Revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson, Krathwohl et al. 2001).9 When examining the  relationship between visual literacy and the  construction of knowledge, two aspects should be considered. Firstly, from the perspective of the historical development of humanity – is to be taken into account that there has been a  visual culture at all stages and regions of civilization development, and it has always been essential in matters related to the  process of human communication and knowledge acquisition (Hug, 2012). Also, the  fact that visual communication forms existed long before the emergence of written communication. Secondly, from the  perspective of human development  – information that children derive from visual information sources is fundamental to their development and learning process. Because “children learn to perceive and interpret, that is to “read” body language and other visual signs before they 7 In contrast to a  situation in which one has to remember unknown information offered as a ready-made informative text which has to be mechanically remembered. 8 For example, a pupil not only knows the features of a totalitarian regime but is also able to identify them in modern political systems. 9 A  comparison of taxonomies with examples of assignments that integrate visual literacy can be found in the  Master’s thesis underlying this article (Ozolina 2018, 27–29). 342 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 begin to perceive and interpret, to “read” the words they hear. In fact, for the seeing child, it is primarily the successful “reading” of visual signs that makes possible the “reading” of heard verbal signs. For him, this primacy of visual information in human development made it a  critical feature in the  formation of language and, subsequently, knowledge.” (Michelson 2017, 95). Data analysis and evaluation Lecture cycle was carried out to obtain data from study courses that took place at the  University of Latvia  – “SDSKR003: Master’s Practice in Research” and “Vēst5140: Analysis of Historical Sources”. Participants of this lecture cycle had to: a) fill out a survey “Visual sources of information in history and related subjects,” which aimed to obtain qualitative (rather than quantitative) data to explore teachers’ experiences in integrating visual literacy into the learning process; b) to develop, implement and reflect on assignments for primary and secondary education pupils which were aimed to develop visual literacy and improve knowledge construction. Partaker of the  study were students studying to obtain history teacher`s qualification and had to attend above mentioned lecture cycle, a person who works at the museum and was interested in attending lecture cycle and teachers of subjects which are related to history. Survey Analyzing data gained by the  survey, it was concluded that 88,9% of respondents use visual information sources at their pedagogical practice. Motivation tendencies of doing so can be defined as a) practical reasons, e.g., visual sources are used in textbooks and methodical materials used by the teacher; b) subject specificity, e.g., visual art, cultural science, art history; c) peculiarities of pupil perception, e.g., nowadays, visual information sources play an essential role in the daily life of children and young people. Therefore, the  information should be provided in a  more easily understandable way; d) development of pupils’ critical thinking, e.g., encourages the  pupils to think, interpret different elements of the image, their meaning, and relation to the time of the creation of the source and its purpose. When asked to identify knowledge and skills needed for dealing with visual information sources respondents identified such needed knowledge: about time, the area of what the visual source provides information; about the  cultural era represented by the  source; knowledge of source creation techniques and technologies; preliminary knowledge in the field of visual research (this should instead be attributed to skills); basic knowledge of means of art expression and their use. Skills defined as necessary for 343Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... analyzing visual sources was: the ability to select the necessary information; ability to see the details and the overall picture; ability to analyze, select and group information; ability to see, observe, analyze, conclude. More detailed responses about what knowledge is needed to analyze visual information sources have been provided by respondents whose activities have been linked to visual sources of information outside their pedagogical process. In general, respondents have the understanding that visual information sources should be viewed in context with the place and time of creation, and that there is a need for specific knowledge to work with visual information sources. About the necessary skills – the impression is that most respondents have no notion of the  specific skills needed to work with visual information sources because respondents mostly indicated the skills needed to analyze different sources of information in general. Respondents were asked to provide their examples of assignments that included visual information sources. These assignments were of different degrees of complexity and meant for people of different ages. Assignments reflected the perception of respondents on how to use visual information sources in the pedagogical process. It was observed that this understanding is related to respondents’ education and experience of working with visual information sources outside of school. Not all respondents were able to define the purpose of their proposed assignment adequately and to clearly define what knowledge and skills are needed or developed in the process of performing the assignment. Respondents had to analyze four assignments that included visual information sources. One of the  criteria that had to be analyzed was to evaluate the potential of the assignment in constructing pupils’ knowledge and its potential to develop skills to work with visual information sources. The  study analyzed two assignments and respondents’ views on them  – respondents rated one of these assignments as the  most relevant to the  previously defined criterion, but other as the  least appropriate. In the assignment that respondents rated as meeting the criteria, respondents saw the need to use both knowledge and skills. Respondents did not define the need to apply any skills in an assignment that was assessed as irrelevant to criteria. Thus, it can be concluded that in assignments aimed at developing visual literacy and promoting knowledge construction, it is necessary to include both the need to use the knowledge and the opportunity to develop skills. As well it is crucial to design assignments in which visual sources are included meaningfully not formally. It seems logical, but when analyzing the exams in the History of Latvia that were offered until 2018, it could be established that the percentage of visual information sources to be included is low, as well as the  fact that these assignments (such as those offered 344 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 to respondents in the  survey which were included in the 2019 and 2011 exams in Latvian History for 9th grade) do not always offer adequate use of skills in the analysis of visual information sources. Similar conclusions can be attributed to exams (regarding 9th grade) of other years – 2015, 2016, 2017. Mentioned exams are analyzed in the master’s thesis “The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction in the  History of Latvia and the World” (Ozoliņa 2018, 39–40) on which this publication is based. However, the situation has improved in the 2018 (National Centre for Education 2018, https://visc.gov.lv/vispizglitiba/eksameni/dokumenti/ uzdevumi/2018/9klase/9kl_vesture_lv.pdf) and 2019 exams (National Centre for Education 2019, https://visc.gov.lv/vispizglitiba/eksameni/ dokumenti/uzdevumi/2019/9klase/9kl_vesture.pdf). In the  2018 exam, the visual source of information had to be confronted with the written ones (3., 6., 7. assignments in Part 2 of the exam), in 2019 (9. Assignment in Part 2 of the exam) the visual information sources (political posters) had to be linked to the historical reality of the time of their creation. Thus, those assignments can be rated as meaningful and demanding usage of more advanced skills in analyzing visual sources. Development, implementation and reflection on assignments In addition to the  survey, assignments developed, and implemented during the  lecture cycle meant to integrate visual literacy in the  learning process to facilitate knowledge construction, were also analyzed. Each participant had to develop two assignments, but their analysis includes one of the assignments offered by each participant, as they were similar in the approach and showed a similar understanding of the respondent’s visual literacy and knowledge construction elements. The developed, approbated assignments, their descriptions, data summaries, and essays provided by the participants of the research were analyzed. The results were categorized: knowledge and skills that each exercise helps to develop, and conclusions. The following are two examples of assignment analysis: one assignment meant for elementary and one for secondary school. The  assignment for elementary school  – pupils were given the  assignment of analyzing a  propaganda poster of the  Vichy regime and answering ten questions about the poster. The knowledge that it helps to construct can be defined as such: French policy and society during the Vichy regime; the concepts of propaganda, motto, occupation, cultural values; social roles attributed to genders during the Vichy regime. Skills what this assignment develop was defined as such: reasonably judge semi-familiar information that hides the instructions that can be used to perform an assignment; using visual symbols to determine which country is covered by the  proposed poster; determine what type of propaganda 345Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... (national-socialist / fascist; communist; democratic) is visible in the poster and what visual signs show it; to conclude (given three options) the correct translation of the  motto offered in French; to identify the  historical personality seen in the poster, knowing which country and in what period this poster has been created; to define the  concept of the  ideal society offered by the Vichy regime based on a diverse depiction of different social groups of men and women; to make conclusions about the cultural values of the  regime, using a  visual source of information. It can be concluded that this assignment develops the  child’s logical reasoning about semi- familiar information. Also, the questions (regarding visual source) should be organized in a particular order so that the pupil can step by step build their knowledge – starting with the lightest questions (also in the test format) and ending with the most difficult – judging what regime the poster reproduces. The assignment for secondary school was developed by museum pedagogue, which determined the specificity of the assignment in question and the  ability to implement it. The  pupil should choose one particular cultural field that was relevant to the  turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and find information about this area in the period considered. For example, press, photographs, memories, documents (if available), works of art can be used as sources. Besides, literature that can be obtained from a library or websites should be used. Based on the  information obtained, the pupil has to draw a  cartoon (analogous or digital) about an event, a  situation that has been topical in a particular time and cultural field. The assignment supports the  knowledge construction of the: concept “cartoon”; visual culture of the  particular period; current events and personalities in a  given period. Skills what this assignment develop was defined as such: identify what sources of information are available about a particular area, personality, event; to work with a visual source of information rather than perceive it as a  static illustration of the  era; to apply Erwin Panofsky’s iconological analysis, at least its first two levels; to get information both from the source and create a new source of visual information. It can be concluded that the  assignment has considerable potential to develop the ability to work with visual information sources – one must be able to perceive the particular period of history and make the cartoon so that it can be perceived in the  social and historical context of the appropriate time. When discussing an assignment10, the  negative aspects of it were defined – the assignment is too time-consuming and therefore, impossible 10 It should be taken into account that this assignment was not implemented. But the author of the assignment discussed it with his colleagues in the museum, as well as with the participants of the lecture cycle and the author of this study. 346 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 in the  museum environment. Execution of the  assignment would require the preparation of a particular project, as it is not included in the museum’s offer. Besides, experience shows that teachers do not usually have the time to invest many resources in preparing for a museum visit. The pupil may not have enough understanding of what the  cartoon is. It is doubtful whether the pupils would understand how to transfer the information about the period to the cartoon form. The suggestions were made in order to make assignment possible, firstly, to develop an assignment as a  project where one part is done at school, but the  other part at the  museum. However, the author of the assignment, based on experience, stated that it would not be possible. Secondly, to change an assignment from making a cartoon to making a  comic strip  – possibly a more understandable option for pupils. It can be concluded, analyzing all the  information obtained during the study, that visual information sources can be integrated into the learning process in different ways, in order to develop knowledge construction. Visual sources of information can be used as introductory material for a topic. In this case, the assignments should be designed to enable students to retrieve and classify the  knowledge relevant to the  new topic from the  visual sources using the skills required to analyze those sources. Visual sources of information can also be used to encourage pupils’ emotional attachment to learning content that can improve the learning process. Visual information sources can also be used as a  guide to the  learning process, which can help in the construction of new knowledge and the development of skills using existing knowledge and skills. In this case, the  assignments should be designed to acquire new knowledge and develop skills through existing knowledge and skills and logical actions and conclusions. Visual sources of information can also be used to create the content depth of a known topic. In this case, the assignments should offer students the opportunity to use the knowledge they have about a topic to find and implement opportunities to explore the  topic more in-depth, possibly using atypical methods. In visual information sources, time structures are not primary, unlike verbal sources of information, so visual information sources can also be used to stimulate the  analysis of problematic issues in several time dimensions simultaneously – in the past, present and future. It can develop the ability to look at specific situations and issues more broadly, taking into account the experience of people who have lived in different periods and locations. Conclusions The essential outcomes were several, firstly, examining the  theoretical material in which concepts of visual literacy and knowledge construction have been analyzed from the perspective of history and pedagogy, led to 347Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... a conclusion that the concepts visual literacy and knowledge construction are not clearly defined as well as the  principles of integration of visual literacy and knowledge construction in the  history study process. Also, the  intention of research to tightly integrate pedagogy and history from various aspects is atypical in the  Latvian educational environment at the  academic level. Since at this level, research in didactics of history is fragmented and underdeveloped. Due to this, the elements of approaches, evaluation criteria, and guidelines were outlined in the research (see Sect. 1.1., 1.2.). Secondly, the unified understanding of the integration of visual literacy in the learning process among teachers of the history and related subjects (similar to the  research literature) was not detected. This conclusion was made both by carrying out the  content analysis of different sources of information and by offering respondents who work in educational institutions and whose work is related to history, to fill out a  survey on visual literacy and knowledge construction. The  qualitative analysis of the obtained data led to the conclusion that visual information sources are integrated into the learning process and that respondents were partly able to define the knowledge and skills necessary to analyze visual information sources. Thirdly, as a  result of research, during the  master’s practice at the  University of Latvia Faculty of History and Philosophy, the  lecture cycle was implemented. During the  lecture cycle actions of participants were moderated. The objective was to develop participants (as practicing history educators) ability to use visual information sources in the learning process. Another objective was to construct participants understanding of concepts visual literacy and knowledge construction. Fourth, evaluating the experience and data gained during the  study it can be concluded (see Sect. Chap.2) that the visual sources of information should be used in different ways and different parts of the study process. Visual literacy can be integrated into all parts of the  learning process  – a) introduction of the  content; b) creating an emotional attachment to the  given content; c) using existing knowledge and skills to gain new knowledge and skills; d) to develop a depth of content; e) to analyze one problem in different time dimensions. Also, visual literacy integrated into different parts of the learning process can be used to encourage knowledge construction. Practical use of the  research can be defined as such  – the  outlined elements of approaches, evaluation criteria, guidelines, developed and analyzed assignments regarding visual literacy and knowledge construction can be directly implemented into the  history learning process. As for the  scientific novelty of the  research  – it focuses on a  specific field of 348 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 studies that encompasses two branches of science and two concepts of “visual literacy” and “knowledge construction” used in different contexts. There is no consensus in this field of research in the broader context, but in the Latvian educational environment at an academic level, it is related to the  area of neglected didactics of history and thus is fragmented and understudied. However, it should be noted that the  following factors influenced the  implementation of the  research: a) the  study was carried out during previously mentioned lecture cycle at the  University of Latvia, which determined both the  orientation of the  research topic, the  circle of partakers, respondents and methods used during research. b) the  study involved people working in educational institutions in Latvia who work with primary and secondary education students. It determined the aspects of the  study related to the  age peculiarities of the  students, the  topics covered in history lessons, as well as the resources available and methods chosen to implement different ideas. Further research perspectives could be defined as follow: a) possibilities of integrating visual information sources in the  study process of history to foster the construction of pupils’ knowledge, could be further explored involving a  more comprehensive range of participants; b) the  lecture cycle during which the  study was carried out could be re-implemented to confront the newly obtained data and its analysis with those obtained in this study; c) implemented and analyzed assignments were developed corresponding to “Revised Bloom Taxonomy” (Leslie 2016). However, in context with ongoing educational reform in Latvia (National Centre for Education http://visc.gov.lv/visc/projekti/esf_831.shtml), it would be beneficial to reconsider developed assignments using SOLO taxonomy which “describes the growth in complexity of performance in many learning assignments, from the earliest engagement in the assignment to expertise. Learning grows along at least two dimensions: (a) the level of abstraction, or mode, of the  contents learned (five such modes are recognisable from infancy to adulthood); and (b) the  cycle of increasing complexity that learning undergoes within any given mode [..] to state the  desired level of performance in many important curriculum topics in a  way that can be used (a) for criterion-referenced assessment in particular subjects, and (b) for discussing comparable levels of attainment across different subjects and different schools.” (Biggs, Collis 1989, 151). 349Liene Ozoliņa. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction ... References Anderson, L. W. (Eds.), Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.), Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Avotiņa, A. (2019). 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(2019) Examination in the  history of Latvia calss 9. Retrieved from: https://visc.gov.lv/vispizglitiba/eksameni/dokumenti/uzdevumi/2019/ 9klase/9kl_vesture.pdf (20.06.2019.). National Centre for Education. ESF project No. 8.3.1.1/16/1/002 “Competency based curriculum” or  Skola2030 (“Kompetenču pieeja mācību saturā” jeb Skola2030) Retrieved from: http://visc.gov.lv/visc/projekti/esf_831.shtml (24.06.2019.). Ozoliņa, L. The Students` Visual Literacy for Knowledge Construction in the History of Latvia and the World. Riga: University of Latvia, 2018, 10–13. Retrieved form: https:// dspace.lu.lv/dspace/handle/7/38491 (20.06.2019.). Schreiber, W. (2004). Der Historiker und die Bilder: Grundlegungen für den Geschichtsunterricht. (The historian and the pictures: foundations for history lessons.) In: Schreiber, Waltraud (Hrsg): Bilder aus der Vergangenheit – Bilder der Vergangenheit? (Bilder aus der Vergangenheit – Bilder der Vergangenheit?) Neuried: Ars una. Serafini, F. (2011). Expanding Perspectives for Comprehending Visual Images in Multimodal Texts. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 54, No. 5, P. 342–350. Stokes, S. (2002). Visual Literacy in Teaching and Learning: A Literature Perspective. // In: Electronic Journal for the  Integration of Technology in Education. Vol. 1., No.  1. (pp. 10–19) Retrieved from: https://wcpss.pbworks.com/f/Visual+Literacy.pdf (20.06.2019.). Information about the author Liene Ozoliņa, Mg. hist., Mg. paed. Research interests include history didactics, visual literacy, and knowledge construction. The author obtained the master’s degree in history (2015) and the professional master’s degree in pedagogy (2018) from the University of Latvia. Currently teacher of History of Latvia and the World to primary and secondary level students. Also, a member of the board of History and Social sciences Teachers’ Association of Latvia. 351Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 WRITING (TEXT CREATION) DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY STUDENTS AT THEIR MOTHER TONGUE LESSONS: TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE Nijolė Bražienė Šiauliai University, Lithuania Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania ABSTRACT Referring to the results of the quantitative research, the article deals with how the primary teachers of the town X of Lithuania establish conditions for the formation of students’ text creation skills; how text creation activities are organized at their mother tongue lessons; what teachers’ attitude towards students’ abilities to perform creative text tasks is. Referring to the data of the research, primary teachers working according to the curriculum of mother tongue education do not have enough time for the  formation of students’ text creation skills; only slightly more than a  half of the  teachers at least once a  week give a  lesson to form students’ creative text skills and prepare students to create a text – they give a whole lesson on that and assign creative text tasks to students to perform them in the classroom. The  fact that only about one-third of the  teachers are satisfied with the outcomes of their students’ creative texts, raises doubts about the following abilities of teachers themselves: to prepare for a text creation lesson himself/herself, to assign preparation tasks to students, to structure the lesson/process of text creation, etc. Keywords: primary students, primary teachers, text creation, lesson of mother tongue education. Introduction Based on research (cit. Creativity Development in Children at Home, at School and in Extracurricular Activities, 2014), both according to society’s attitude towards creativity and the  results of creativity, Lithuania’s situation is one of the poorest in the EU, and the progress is not sufficient. In Lithuania, the share of creative employees is one of the lowest in the EU and the  share of employees who are considered non-creative is much higher than the average of the EU. There may be various causes of the gap in creativity and limited progress, among which one of the  main causes https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.24 Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė Writing (Text Creation) ... 352 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 is insufficiently used possibilities while developing children’s creativity at school (Ibid, p. 16). In the process of mother tongue education, the creative tasks of a spoken and written text are focused on creativity development in children to the greatest extent. According to the PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study) report of 2016, the  general reading achievement of the  fourth-graders of Lithuanian general education schools has evidently increased eliminating the decline that formed between 2001 and 2011. Meanwhile, the situation of writing (text creation) remains a  problematic area of education. In the  reports of the  national research of students’ achievements (Subject Report of the  National Research of Students’ Achievements of 2014; Subject Report of the  National Examination of Students’ Achievements of 2017; Subject Report of  the  National Examination of Students’ Achievements of 2018), the decreasing tendency of text creation of our primary graders is emphasized. Moreover, in the  Subject Report of the  National Examination of Students’ Achievements of 2018, it was pointed out that since 2017 the  results of the eighth-graders’ writing test have significantly decreased as well. It is possible to presuppose that text creation skills insufficiently developed in primary grades cause difficulties in senior grades as well. Such a presupposition would be confirmed by the insights of the scientists of other countries (Genlotta, Grönlund, 2013) about the  importance of the development of literacy skills: if children do not develop writing skills in their early years, later they will face bigger difficulties when they have to create longer and more complicated texts. It presupposes the problem question of the research – how is writing (text creation) development of primary students organized at their mother tongue lessons? Having in mind that primary teachers are educators, on whom children’s further learning and their success in future depend to a  great extent alongside with the development of creative skills, the aim of the research is to evaluate the attitude of the primary teachers of the town X of Lithuania towards writing (text creation) development of students at their mother tongue lessons. The research intended to find out: 1) how teachers evaluate the  conditions given by the  curriculum of mother tongue education to develop students’ creative abilities and to form text creation skills; 2) how text creation activities are organized; 3) what teachers’ attitude towards students’ abilities to perform creative text tasks is. Methods of the  research: scientific literature analysis, questionnaire survey, descriptive statistics. Sample and procedure of the  research. The  research on teachers’ attitude towards writing (text creation) development of students at their mother tongue lessons presented in the  article is one of the  parts of 353Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė. Writing (Text Creation) ... the research “Assessment of Creativity of Primary Teachers of the Town X” conducted in the academic year of 2018‒2019. According to the  data of the  department of education of the  town X, a  total of 234 teachers work in the  schools of the  town X that deliver the  primary education curriculum for the  academic year 2018‒2019. The  permission to conduct the  research was individually requested from the  administration of each school presenting them the  problem context of the  research, the  aim and objectives of the  research, and defining the principles of research ethics – goodwill, respect for the person’s dignity, justice, and the  right to receive precise information. After the permission from the  school administration was received, the  potential research participants were given paper questionnaires, which they could fill in individually, at a  convenient time for them, without the  participation of the researchers, having agreed on the date of their return. In the  schools that agreed to participate in the  research, a  total of 167 questionnaires were handed out. 138 primary teachers filled in the questionnaires. Nine questionnaires that were filled in partially or not following the instruction were not analysed. Consequently, in the research report the generalized data of 129 questionnaires have been presented. The demographic data of the  research participants in fact reflect the  situation of teachers working in the  Lithuanian general education schools from the aspect of gender, age, and qualification. All the participants of the  research are women1. The  largest group was aged between 51 and 60 years (44%) and the smallest group was drawn from 60 and more year- olds (14%)2. Primary teachers with a high qualification3 work in primary grades of the town X: out of 129 teachers who participated in the research 75 (58%) have acquired the qualification of a teacher methodologist, one teacher has acquired the  qualification of a  teacher expert. According to the work experience in primary grades, the biggest group of the  research participants consisted of teachers, who have been working for 26‒35 years (37%), the  smallest group consisted of teachers, who have been working for the first five years (8%). 1 In Lithuania the  share of men who work in primary grades is only 5,5% (Lietuva. Švietimas šalyje ir regionuose 2017. Mokytojas [Lithuania. Education in the  Country and Regions 2017. Teacher], 2017, 25). 2 Approximately a half of teachers who work in general education schools of Lithuania are 50 years old and over: teachers under 30 years of age make up 3%, 30‒49 years old – 45%, 50‒59 years old –39%, 60 years old and over – 13% (Ibid, 25). 3 In Lithuania teachers who have the qualification category of a methodologist or an expert are considered teachers with a high qualification. In 2016 there were 36,4% of teachers with such a qualification in Lithuania (Ibid, 26). 354 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Instrument of the research. The questionnaire of the teachers’ attitude towards writing (text creation) development of students at their mother tongue lessons consisted of 19 statements that permit to identify how teachers evaluate the conditions given by the curriculum of mother tongue education to develop students’ creative abilities; how text creation activities are organized; how teachers evaluate their abilities to establish favourable conditions for the  formation and development of students’ writing (text creation) abilities. Every statement was evaluated using a  five-point scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The  overall indicator of each scale is obtained summing up all the  scores of the  respective scale. The  internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the  questionnaire of the  teachers’ attitude towards writing (text creation) development of students at their mother tongue lessons is 0,840. Results According to the  Lithuanian language curriculum for primary education (2016), primary students should learn various strategies of the  creation of a  fictional text based on the  elements of re-creation (reproductive creativity) and original creativity, i.e., 1) to create a story based on one’s personal experience and an imaginary one: according to the  series of pictures; according to the given beginning and end; independently changing and remaking the plan given by the teacher; according to the guidelines of the  story; according to the  example of the  literary work they have read; according to a  self-made plan; 2) to write a  retelling using questions, outline, chain of actions; 3) to write a  description of an object/event/ phenomenon. Retellings are probably the most reproductive tasks. During the Soviet times, various types of retellings (detailed, concise and selective) at the lessons of mother tongue education were one of the most frequent types of written assignments. In modern language teaching methodology, when particular attention is focused on the  creative expression of the  student himself/herself, the  importance of retellings has evidently decreased (it can be noticed from the data of the picture 1 as well – only slightly more than a half of the research participants (64%) strongly agree / agree with the  statement that their students write retellings). Nevertheless, we tend to think that this type of text tasks should not be underestimated – poor retelling skills especially manifest themselves in senior grades when writing essays, preparing independent written assignments, presentations, etc. It means that: 1) when it is necessary to shorten the  text written by others or its fragment, good skills of concise retelling are obligatory; 2) when it is important to emphasize important things, good skills of selective retelling 355Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė. Writing (Text Creation) ... are obligatory, 3) when it is necessary to present the content of the excerpt of the text, good skills of detailed retelling are obligatory. Moreover, every student combining intuitive and conscious understanding of a  text must acquire knowledge and practical skills necessary to meet the motivation for self-expression, to create his/her own text. Having in mind that imitation is a psychological basis for learning a  language, referring to the  thoughts of one of the most famous specialists of the Lithuanian didactics Šoblinskas (1987), it is possible to give the  following definition of the  didactic importance of retelling: retelling requires to be able to think logically, to retain the consistency of the story, to distinguish between more important and secondary things; by going deep into the content and structure of a text written by others, a student learns practical linguistic activity, strengthens his/her own text creation skills; gets accustomed to using words and their forms not only correctly but also stylistically precisely; learns the  ways of rendering thoughts  – narration, description, reasoning; when writing retellings students more rapidly and to a  greater extent feel the  stylistic specifics of particular genres. Figure 1. Distribution of the teachers’ opinion about the text creation strategies they use (n = 129) As the  results of the present research show, one of the most frequent strategies used at the mother tongue lessons in primary grades is a story – 85% of the primary teachers agree / strongly agree that they assign this type of writing tasks to students (see Figure 1). Slightly smaller shares of the  respondents strongly agree / agree (69%), that their students create fairy tales. From the linguistic point of view, a fairy tale is one of the  types of narration with a  trinomial (the beginning, the  process and the  climactic moment, and the  end of the  event) structure characteristic of it. Nevertheless, in comparison with a  story, a  fairy tale is a  much more complex type of narration characterized by various levels of 356 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the relation between fantasy and reality, specific elements of composition. In pedagogical and psychological literature, the  importance of fairy tales created by the  child is especially emphasized: creating a  fairy tale and, most importantly, writing it is one of the most valuable ways of creative self-expression. Nevertheless, the  results of this part of the  research provoke ambiguous thoughts. Referring to the  findings of the  Report of the  National Research of Students’ Achievements of 2014, for our fourth- graders it is the  most difficult to create a  fairy tale. The  results of the scientific research (Bražienė, 2004; 2018) also show that the plots of the fairytale texts created by primary students are very poor – primitive, without the  development of the  action, in the  fairy tales created by students the  aims, wishes, behaviour motivation of the  main character are not always clearly understood, the causal relations of the characters’ actions are not understandable, the narration of events lacks consistency and completeness, there is a lack of imagination, the reproductive creative resources to create fairy tales are predominant; the majority of the  fairy tales created by the third and fourth graders meet only the most minimum criteria, referring to which foreign scientists (Applebee, 1989; Pitcher, Prelinger, 1963; Preece, 1987) among other types of narration distinguish fairy tales created by five-year-old children. Consequently, this context suggests the  idea about the  organization of creative writing activities in general – how much time is given for creative text tasks, how the students are prepared to perform them and where they perform them, what motivation to create texts students have and what teachers’ opinion about the final outcome of the student’s creative writing is. In Saylik’s (2014, 20) words, “creative writing skills of primary school pupils are a  physical and mental capacity to create an original, detailed, flexible and fluent creative written text. The  concept of creative writing skills is a  complex theoretical construct, which implicates in itself pupils’ abilities: to characterise the essence of a creative written text by creating an appropriate title (originality), to create the content of a creative written text and reveal its topic (elaboration), to create a structured creative written text (fluency), to create an expressive, logical, integral and consistent creative written text (flexibility)”. In the Lithuanian language curriculum for primary education (2016, 27), it is emphasized that creative writing should be treated as an activity enabling to creatively express oneself while creating a  meaningful, interesting written text, to share thoughts, feelings, opinion with others. In this document, the guidelines of the development of writing as a field of linguistic activity are outlined. It should be noted that the  General Teaching Plan for the Primary Education Curriculum (2017) permits teachers to decide how to organize the educational process and model the contents 357Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė. Writing (Text Creation) ... of education striving for the  aims of the  primary education curriculum; it is possible to choose various ways of the  integration of the  contents of education, etc., i.e., teachers are given freedom to creatively plan and organize the educational process. As it can be seen from the  Figure 2, in the  opinion of the  majority of the  teachers, who participated in the  research, the  curriculum of  the  Lithuanian language gives enough space for the  development of students’ creative abilities. Nevertheless, only almost one-third (26%) of  the  teachers, who participated in the  research, strongly agree / agree with the  statement that working according to the  curriculum of the  Lithuanian language during the  lessons there is enough time for creative writing (disagree / strongly disagree – 39%). These numbers are illustrated by the  teachers’ comments, e.g.: Sometimes teachers are afraid not to fit into the time of the lesson. We are glad that in our school there are no bells, and, in case of inspiration, we can work longer; Teaching grammar takes a lot of time, children do not memorize spelling and punctuation rules in any way. And let us not forget teaching reading skills. There is simply no time left for creative works in these 45 minutes of the lesson; Creative writing works take time, and where should we get it from?; (...) I would like to give more examples, creative thoughts, but the scope of the curriculum of the Lithuanian language is very large. We have to “run gallop”; There is not enough time to perform creative tasks because the scope and curriculum of the Lithuanian language are very broad; The lesson is too short, therefore, the possibilities for creation are limited. Figure 2. Evaluation of the curriculum of the Lithuanian language from the aspect of the development of creativity in students: distribution of the teachers’ opinion (n = 129) 358 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 In this context, it could be pointed out that a  bigger share (54%) of the  research participants are over 50 years old. Consequently, they learned at school and the majority of them studied the didactics of mother tongue during the  Soviet times, when the  process of the  development of the Lithuanian language was divided into separate fields, and at the same time into separate lessons  – reading, learning grammar, and coherent language. Although in fact all the  participants of the  research are firmly convinced that they have enough didactic knowledge to teach students various text creation strategies, we tend to think that the  experience of previous times, didactic knowledge and skills learned and established through many years of practical experience do not permit senior teachers to refocus on the  system of mother tongue teaching/learning renewed after the  restoration of independence, i. e., in the  process of mother tongue education to integrate all the fields of linguistic activity – listening (understanding of a  spoken text), speaking (production of a spoken text, expressing thoughts verbally), reading (reading techniques, understanding and using of the  text that is read), and writing (writing techniques, production of a  written text). Therefore, in the  integrated lesson of the  Lithuanian language, when the  subjects of the  knowledge of the  language structure, reading techniques, understanding literature, writing and creativity training need to be combined, the  teacher faces problems in the  consistent and purposeful development of students’ text creation skills. According to Daffern and Mackenzie (2015, 24), “specific writing elements require systematic consideration in the  teaching and learning of writing, including text structure, sentence and grammatical structure, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and handwriting or word processing”. Creative writing is a  thinking process that requires quite big intellectual efforts from the  child. In order to perform a  text creation task well, it is important for the  student to have enough time to consider the  stages of the creative process / to make a plan of the essay, to work out the ideas, to coherently, logically, precisely, and correctly write his/her thoughts, to discuss the  text with the  teacher/peers, then to improve, correct, and present it. Referring to the  recommendations of the  scientists (Calkins, Ehrenworth, 2016), the  ideal writing workshop includes ten minutes of explicit instruction, at least half an hour of writing time, ending with 5–10 minutes of sharing and goal setting with a peer. Nevertheless, only slightly more than a half (59%) of the research participants strongly agree / agree with the  statement that at least once a week they give a  lesson to form creative text skills and prepare students for creative text work – they give a whole lesson on that (57%) (see Figure 3). 359Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė. Writing (Text Creation) ... Figure 3. Distribution of the teachers’ opinion about the time given for creative writing (n = 129) Moreover, in this context, it is important to point out that in the General Teaching Plan for the  Primary Education Curriculum for the  academic year 2017‒2018 and 2018‒2019, the  number of teaching hours for mother tongue education per week is quite big: 1 grade – 8 hours, 2‒4 grades ‒ 7  hours. Consequently, it is likely that the  teacher when planning the lessons of mother tongue education could give a  separate lesson for the formation of students’ creative writing skills. This would not violate the integration of the fields of linguistic activity because in the creative writing lesson, listening, speaking, reading, and writing are inevitable. As it can be seen from the picture 3, the teachers’ opinion about where it is better for students to perform creative text tasks is twofold: some of them are convinced (strongly agree / agree  – 50%) that it should be in the  classroom, the  others think (strongly agree / agree  – 54%) that it should be at home. The scientists from other countries (Shook et al, 1989; Ritlyová, 2014) also notice that teachers ignore creative text tasks and usually assign them for homework. It must be mentioned that students have to be taught how to write: students must know how good they are at using theoretical knowledge in practice, i. e., whether they suitably create a text of one or another style, whether they consistently express thoughts, choose correct words, spell them correctly, etc. Another important element in the  creative process is to encourage students to cooperate: to discuss about creative ideas, plans of writing, and revise students’ work. If students have an audience who would listen to their writing, their motivation rises (Ritlyová, 2014). Therefore, it is possible to presuppose that when creative writing tasks are given for homework, the risk increases that the students 360 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 will face writing difficulties. When the  students cannot cope with these difficulties, their activeness decreases and this may provoke the  motives forming a negative attitude towards writing a creative text. There are very few researches in Lithuania conducted more than a  decade ago that would evaluate primary students’ disposition to create (Schoroškienė, 2000; Jasinskienė, Ramaneckienė, 2004; Schoroškienė, Marcinkevičiūtė, 2008). It has been noticed that only a  third of first and second graders have a  disposition to create. Although third and fourth graders’ creative dispositions are more distinct, however, a  strong negative attitude towards creative text tasks remains. It is possible to state that it corresponds to the  findings of the  scientists from other countries: referring to Grainger et al (2005), the children aged 7‒9 years expressed predominantly negative attitudes to writing, typically describing it as boring, whilst a small, but worrying proportion of those aged 9‒11 reflected an indifferent, somewhat detached disposition. As the results of the present research show, 42% of the respondents strongly agree / agree that primary students like creative writing tasks (neither agree nor disagree  – 43%, disagree / strongly disagree – 15%). By analogy – only about one-third of the teachers are satisfied with the outcomes of their students’ creative texts (strongly agree / agree – 36%, neither agree nor disagree – 45%, disagree / strongly disagree – 19%) (see Figure 4). Figure 4. Expression of the teachers’ opinion about the process of students’ text creation and evaluation of outcomes (n = 129) The results of this part of the research raise doubts about the following abilities of teachers themselves: to prepare for a  text creation lesson himself/herself, to assign preparation tasks to students, to structure 361Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė. Writing (Text Creation) ... the  lesson/process of text creation, etc. Consequently, here attention is shifting towards the  previously conducted research on the  evaluation of teachers’ creativity during the lessons of other subjects, in the conclusions of  which it is stated that teachers lack competences related to the  development of children’s creativity: teachers plan their own activity during the lessons well but not the students’ activity, its meaning and future outcomes; the main agent in the lesson is not the student but the teacher, who only partially properly chooses teaching/learning methods, poorly motivates students, does not establish conditions for students’ initiative and creativity to unfold (according to Creativity Development in Children at Home, at School and in Extracurricular Activities, 2014). Conclusions According to the  primary teachers, who participated in the  research, their students learn various strategies of the  creation of a  fictional text based on the elements of re-creation (reproductive creativity) and original creativity. Most often primary students learn to create a story, least often they learn to write a retelling. The development of primary students’ writing (text creation) skills should be a process of teaching/learning how to write, which is very well thought over by the  teacher and which is consistently and purposefully organized. Nevertheless, referring to the  data of the  research, primary teachers working according to the curriculum of mother tongue education do not have enough time for the  formation of students’ text creation skills. We tend to consider the lack of time emphasized by the teachers as the possible lack of the didactic competences of the teachers themselves to work according to the system of mother tongue teaching/learning renewed after the  restoration of independence and use the  freedom to creatively plan and organize the educational process. During the  lessons of creative text writing, students must be taught how to write, must be encouraged to collaborate; they must be provided immediate help when they face writing difficulties. However, as it can be seen from the  results of the  research, only slightly more than a  half of the  teachers at least once a week give a  lesson to form students’ creative text skills and prepare students to create a text – they give a whole lesson on that and assign creative text tasks to students to perform them in the classroom. It would be possible to state that the majority of teachers understand that the success of the performance of creative text tasks depends both on the teacher and the student. However, the fact that even less than a half of the research participants admit that their students like creative writing tasks 362 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and only about one-third of the teachers are satisfied with the outcomes of their students’ creative texts, raises doubts about the  following abilities of teachers themselves: to prepare for a text creation lesson himself/herself, to assign preparation tasks to students, to structure the  lesson/process of text creation, etc. The presented results of the  quantitative research only partially inform how the  primary teachers of the  town X of Lithuania organize the  development of primary students’ writing (text creation) at their mother tongue lessons. The  results of the  present research presupposed the perspective of our further qualitative research, i.e., to find out: 1) how the teacher prepares for a text creation lesson himself/herself, how he/she assigns preparation tasks to students and what kind of tasks it is, how he/ she structures the lesson/process of text creation; 2) what students’ opinion about text creation lessons is; in the students’ opinion, what the necessary preconditions are for the  formation of students’ positive relation with creative text tasks and how teachers could enhance students’ creative attitudes so that the outcomes of students’ creative tasks could be better. References Applebee, A. N. (1989). The  child’s concept of story: ages two to seventeen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Calkins, L., Ehrenworth, M. (2016). Growing extraordinary writers: Leadership decisions to raise the level of writing across a school and a District. The Reading Teacher, 70(1), 7‒18. DOI: 10.1002/trtr.1499. Bražienė, N. (2004). The Development of Creativity of Primary School Pupils by Fairy-Tales: Summary of the Doctoral Dissertation. Siauliai University. Bražienė, N. (2018). Pasakiškasis 8‒11 metų vaikų kuriamų tekstų pasaulis. [In Lithuanian. Fairy World of the  Texts Created by 8‒11 Year Old Children.] In Juodaitytė,  A. ir kt. (2018). Šiuolaikinė vaikystė ir vaikų ugdymas: socialiniai-kultūriniai kontekstai: Mokslo studija. [In Lithuanian. Contemporary childhood and education of children: social-cultural contexts: Study]. Šiaulių universitetas. P. 137‒186. Daffern, T., Mackenzie, N. (2015). Building strong writers: Creating a balance between the  authorial and secretarial elements of writing. Literacy Learning: the  Middle Years, 23(1), 23‒32. Access to Document: . Genlotta, A. A., Grönlund, Å. (2013). Improving literacy skills through learning reading by writing: The iWTR method presented and tested. Computers & Education, 67, 98‒104. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2013.03.007. Grainger, T., Goouch, K., Lambirth, A. (2005). Creativity and Writing: Developing Voice and Verve in the Classroom. London & New York: Routledge. Jasinskienė, J., Ramaneckienė, I. (2004). Ketvirtokų sampratos apie galimybes patiems dalyvauti kūrybiniame procese tyrimas [In Lithuanian. Research on fourth-formers’ opportunities to participate in creative processes]. Jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai, 3, 49‒58. 363Nijolė Bražienė, Daiva Grakauskaitė-Karkockienė. Writing (Text Creation) ... Lietuva. Švietimas šalyje ir regionuose 2017. Mokytojas. (2017). [In Lithuanian. Lithuania. Education in the Country and Regions 2017. Teacher]. Vilnius: ŠMM. Access to Document: . Lietuvių kalbos pradinio ugdymo bendroji programa. [In Lithuanian. Lithuanian language curriculum for primary education]. (2016). Vilnius: ŠMM. Pitcher, E. G., Prelinger, E. (1963). Children tell stories: An analysis of fantasy. New York: International Universities Press. Preece, A. (1987). The  range of narrative forms conversationally produced by young children. Journal of child language, 14(2). Cambridge University Press, 353–373. Ritlyová, A. (2014). Creative Use of Literature in Language Teaching. Tvorivosť v škole – škola tvorivosti: Online Konferencia (29.–30. 10. 2014). Access to Document: . 2014 m. nacionalinio mokinių pasiekimų tyrimo dalykinė ataskaita [In Lithuanian. Subject Report of the National Research of Students’ Achievements of 2014]. Vilnius: NMPT. Access to Document: . 2017‒2018 ir 2018‒2019 m. m. Pradinio ugdymo programos bendrasis ugdymo planas [In Lithuanian. The  General Teaching Plan for the  Primary Education Curriculum]. (2017). Vilnius: ŠMM. 2017 metų nacionalinio mokinių pasiekimų patikrinimo ataskaita [Subject Report of the National Examination of Students’ Achievements of 2017]. (2017). Vilnius: NEC. Access to Document: . 2018 metų nacionalinio mokinių pasiekimų patikrinimo ataskaita [In Lithuanian. Subject Report of the  National Examination of Students’ Achievements of 2018]. (2018). Vilnius: NEC. Access to Document: . Saylik, A. (2014). The development of creative writing skills of primary school pupils using interactive whiteboard: Summary of the  Doctoral Dissertation. Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences. Shook, S. E., Marrion, L. V., Ollila, L. O. (1989). Primary Children’s Concepts About Writing. The  Journal of Educational Research, 82(3),133‒139. DOI: 10.1080/00220671.1989.10885882. Schoroškienė, V. (2000). Pirmosios ir antrosios klasės mokinių kūrybinės nuostatos. [In Lithuanian. Creative approaches of the  first and second form pupils. Pedagogika, 43. P. 117‒124. Schoroškienė, V., Marcinkevičiūtė, I. (2008).Trečios ir ketvirtos klasės mokinių kūrybinės nuostatos [In Lithuaninan. Creative Attitudes of 3rd and 4th Formers]. Pedagogika, 90, 129‒135. Šoblinskas, A. (1987). Lietuvių kalbos didaktika. Vilnius: Mokslas. Tarptautinis skaitymo gebėjimų tyrimas [Progress in International Reading Literacy Study] PIRLS 2016: Ataskaita 4 klasė. (2017). Vilnius: NEC. Access to Document: . Vaikų kūrybiškumo ugdymas namuose, mokykloje ir popamokinėje veikloje: Teminio tyrimo ataskaita [In Lithuanian. Creativity Development in Children at Home, at School and in Extracurricular Activities]. (2014). Vilnius: LR Vyriausybės kanceliarija. 364 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE INTEGRATION OF PROBLEM SOLVING AND VALUE APPROACH: THE SHIFT TOWARD HOW TO THINK Sandrita Škėrienė Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania ABSTRACT The paper aims to reveal that values integration into problem solving fosters how to think. The first part of this paper discusses the meaning of a problem that influences the definition of problem solving. The second part discloses a structural process of problem solving and its weak points leading to rational what to think. Addressing the issues of why and how values influence decision-making that is a constituent of problem solving process, the opportunities for integration of values into problem solving are revealed. Stressing that problem solving integrating values is a  significant way of future professionals learning, the  framework of value-based problem solving is presented. Suggestions reveal the implementation for value- based problem solving learning and teaching as well as directions for future research. Keywords: values approach, problem solving, how to think, what to think, future professionals. Introduction The advanced processes of globalization, digital and information technology pose new challenges for education and require to master comprehensive skills, capabilities, and competencies. However, universities provide learners with systematic knowledge, practical and analytical skills (Harland, Pickering, 2010). The  latter allow learners to compete in the  labor market, though only for a  personal economic benefits. In this way, “intelligently obedient” (Thornton, 2004, 15) future professionals are formed. As Sternberg (2017) claims that currently the  focus is on highly skilled “an educational race” (p. 3). Moreover, this race “does little to choose winners who will create a positive, meaningful, and enduring difference to our future” (Sternberg, 2017, 3). The question remains to what extent we want to let that our future will depend on the decisions that are made by professionals who have been “educated” on this basis. Ironically, that, for example, education for sustainable development (e.g. Salgado, Abbott, & Wilson, 2018) is get involved to teach certain competencies in reducing various consequences of problems solved by such professionals. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.25 Sandrita Škėrienė The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach ... 365Sandrita Škėrienė. The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach ... In contrast, higher education should enable learners to get understanding of themselves, of their relationships to others, to develop an ability to make proper moral and other judgments, and to act according them (Ozoliņš, 2015, 870). Barnett (2014) argues that such higher education highlights the  connections between it and the  development of an individual’s mind, understanding, and of the  learner’s entry into a  form of reasoning. Reasoning that is ethical and leads to an ethical conduct (Sternberg, 2009). Everyone should take their share of responsibility and contribute to the world, society, and self-creation through conscious and wise decisions (Zsolnai, 2008; Sternberg, 2017). This places emphasis on the potential of higher education to make a  valuable contribution not by shaping market participants, but by educating professionals who are responsible for itself, for the society in which they are, and for the world. Beghetto (2016) asserts that “the spatial borders have shrunk and macro- challenges have become personalized and quite literally placed in the palms of our hands” (p. 171). Such replacement underlines the  need for a  new thinking which directs acting. One of the  possibilities becomes problem solving identified as the way of thinking (Binkley et al., 2012), reasoning patterns as deduction, induction or even abduction (Dorst, 2011). Currently problem solving is stressed as one of the  key competencies necessary for future professionals (PISA, 2015; World Economic Forum, 2016). Some researchers (Jonassen, 2011; Cho et  al., 2015) suggest to incorporate it in every curriculum. While research from different disciplines deals with the  development of certain problem solving abilities and/or competency (Jonassen, 1997; Ellspermann, Evans, & Basadur, 2007; Donovan, Guss, & Naslund, 2015; Fischer & Neubert, 2015; Collins, Sibthorp, & Gookin, 2016; Yener, 2016), little is known how future professionals could cope with problems, especially those that require value-based approach. Ethical issues encompassing values is more considered in decision-making (Keeney, 1994; Verplanken & Holland, 2002; Hall & Davis, 2007). Problem-based learning proposes to develop ethical and reflective competencies (Euler & Kühner, 2017) as well as to recognize and to apply moral values in daily activities (Kirkman, 2017). In fact, values should be spread within education in order to help learners to discover and to understand to what and how values mean in the broader framework of things (Ozoliņš, 2015). To address the discussed gaps, the paper aims to reveal the integration of problem solving and values. On the  basis of literature review method (Grant & Booth, 2009), this paper addresses several issues. First issue seeks to discuss the  meaning of a  problem and problem solving. Second, the author analyzes models for problem solving development and highlights their weak points. Third, the author explains the significance and influence of values when solving problems. For this purpose, the  author designs 366 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the framework of value-based problem solving. Finally, the paper discusses the issues of its limitation and implementation. Trying to Grasp the Meaning of Problem Solving Literature that examines problem solving calls for a discussion. One of the reasons is the definition of a problem. According to Dunker (1945; as cited in Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), a  problem arises when a  person has a  specific purpose but does not know how to achieve it. However, this general definition represents a  quite narrow view to a  problem. Dostal (2015) argues that a problematic relation is not necessarily primarily based on the purpose of the person. Difficulties and internal uncertainty related to the arisen problem should also be taken into account. With reference to the classical definition, a problem is defined as the gap between the current and desired situations (Ellspermann, Evans, & Basadur, 2007). Jonassen (1997) argues that the problem domain, problem type, the problem solving process and a solution define problems. Contemporary research extend this discussion by presenting various types of a problem: “complex” (Fischer & Neubert, 2015; Herde, Wustenberg, & Greiff, 2016), “well-structured” and “ill-structured” (Basadur, Ellspermann, & Evans, 1994; Jonassen, 1997; Ellspermann, Evans, & Basadur, 2007), etc. Such abundance of types only confuses. As Funke, Fischer, & Holt (2018) point out that often some of these terms lose their essence. For example, when complex and ill-structured problems share many similar features, clear borders between such terms are blurred. Though to define the problem various terms is used, all attempts reflect the  parameters of the  classical problem‘s definition where the  problem consist of the  initial state, the desired end of the  solution (or goal state) and paths searching for the  solution (see Figure 1). Thus, the differences between the variety of the problem‘s types that influence their definitions could explain the first two above-mentioned parameters. Similar ideas can be found in Wood‘s (2006) classification of eight problem types. The data (as the initial state) and the goal determine choose of the methods for how to solve a problem as well as how to evolve the development of different capabilities. In other words, this leads to exploring a variety of paths for solving problems and focuses on the process of searching for the solution. In view of this, problem solving seems to be a  “general term” (Csapo & Funke, 2017, 20). A  wide field of research highlights the  absence of consensus in the  theoretical understanding of what problem solving is. However, Csapo & Funke (2017) claim that such forms of problem solving like domain-specific and domain-general as well as analytic and complex, are well defined. Despite some differences, there is an agreement that 367Sandrita Škėrienė. The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach ... problem solving is a cognitive process (Jonassen, 1997; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), difficult and demanding activity (Raven, 2000). Jonassen (1997) stress that problem solving “as activity is more complex than the  sum of its component parts” (p.66). The  complexity is emphasized by the  fact that problem solving involves motivation and an emotional component (Jonassen, 1997; Dostal, 2015; Funke, Fischer, & Holt, 2018)). Neuroscience research (Zull, 2004) supports the  later issue. Emotions and thoughts are physically intertwined: particular cognitive experience is connected with particular body feeling and influence motivation. In reference to foregoing, problem solving obviously has considerable educational potential. The Models for Problem Solving Development From educational point of view, a problem “is understood as a difficulty of theoretical or practical nature that causes an inquiring attitude of a  subject and leads him/her to the  enrichment of his/her knowledge” (Kupisiewicz, 1964; as cited in Dostal, 2015, p. 2799). This definition highlights the  learning through problem solving. Learning takes place by finding the  space between the known and the unknown. This space is filled with acquired knowledge, skills, and experiences leading to a certain competency. Stanic & Kilpatrick (1988; as cited in Schoenfeld, 2016) presents several topics of how problem solving is used for teaching purposes. Although authors discussed problem solving in mathematics teaching, it is worth to pay attention, as these topics are widely used in different fields of science. The  first topic indicates problem solving as context where problems are applied as the  means to achieve of other curriculum goals. Teaching of problem solving is minimal, as learner performs the stated tasks. The second topic represents problems solving as skill, yet narrowly defined as “being able to obtain solutions to the problems assigned” (Schoenfeld, 2016, 5). Therefore, such skill is worth to teach in its own right. Mostly various methods of problem solving are taught within subject matter and practicing stated problems so that the  methods can be mastered. These two above mentioned topics typically are used in problem-based learning and case- based learning. In contrast to the  former two, the final topic emphasizes problem solving as an art where the real-life and challenging problems are employed. Undoubtedly, this topic is more reasonable for teaching and learning of problem solving. In fact, problem solving is indicated as one of the most meaningful and important ways of learning (Jonassen, 1997). However, its education is one of the greatest challenges (Mayer & Wittrock, 2006). Highlighting problem solving as one of the  core competencies required for future professionals 368 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 R es ul t (o bs er ve d) In iti al st at e Th e cl as si ca l ba sis o f p ro bl em an d its se ar ch fo r so lu tio n Pa th s f or se ar ch in g a so lu tio n D es ire d en d of a so lu tio n C ol lin s, S ib th or p, & G oo ki n, (2 01 6) ; fo r i ll- st ru ct ur ed pr ob le m -s ol vi ng B ra ns fo rd & S te in (1 98 4) ; I D EA L - in vo lv es h eu ris tic to so lv e pr ob le m s B as ad ur , El lsp er m an n, & E va ns (1 99 4) ; co nt in uu m "W ha t's st op pi ng m e/ us ?" Jo na ss en (1 99 7) ; fo r i ll- st ru ct ur ed pr ob le m -s ol vi ng Id en tif y th e pr ob le m D ef in e an d re pr es en t t he pr ob le m Ex pl or e po ss ib le st ra te gi es A ct o n th e st ra te gi es Ev al ua te th e ef fe ct s of a ct iv iti es D on ov an , G us s, & N as lu nd (2 01 5) ; ge ne ra liz ed m od el Pr ob le m g en er at io n Pr ob le m fo rm ul at io n Pr ob le m so lv in g So lu tio n im pl em en ta tio n A rti cu la te p ro bl em d om ai n In tro du ce pr ob le m co ns tra in ts G en er at e pr ob le m so lu tio ns G at he r ev id en ce to su pp or t / re je ct po si tio ns A ct a nd m on ito r so lu tio n A da pt so lu tio n Pr ob le m id en tif ic at io n an d go al In fo rm at io n ga th er in g El ab or at io n an d pr ed ic tio n (fo re ca st in g) St ra te gi c an d ta ct ic al pl an ni ng D ec is io n m ak in g an d ac tio n Ev al ua tio n of o ut co m e; m od ifi ca tio n of st ra te gy R ep re se nt th e pr ob le m D ev el op so lu tio ns M ak e ju sti fic at io ns M on ito r a nd e va lu at e so lu tio ns W ha t? W or ki ng p rin ci pl es le ad s t o Figure 1. The steps of the problem solving process: different approaches (on the basis of Basadur, Ellspermann, & Evans, 1994; Jonassen, 1997; Dorst, 2011; Schunk, 2012; Donovan, Guss, & Naslund, 2015; Collins, Sibthorp, & Gookin, 2016) 369Sandrita Škėrienė. The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach ... (PISA, 2015; World Economic Forum, 2016), models for its development are sought (see Figure 1). The  authority of rationality in the  problem solving paradigm (Korte, 2003) clarifies likeness of the  logical and even stylish structure of these models. Problem solving researchers have different representations about what is the  basis for solving a  problem. Although each model presents certain steps, they all share the  same intention: a search for the solution from the initial state to the desired state. Such classical approach to problem solving underlines the  procedural process of problem solving and supports a  rational approach. After identification of the  problem, a  problem solver jumps into generation of alternatives. In this case, focus is on the problem, not on its understanding and the problem itself directs the whole solving process. When the problem solver pays less attention to the  analysis of the  problem, its thorough understanding is limited. As a  result, the  problem solver could solve the wrong problem in the right way to some extent. The right way means that the problem solver employs usual way to solve problems which Dorst (2011) called deductive reasoning. The problem solver knows the “what” (an initial state) and working principals (paths searching for the solution). For this reason, the  problem solver can predict results (desired end of the  solution) which are often more or less convenient for the  problem solver. Such problem solving process concentrates on what to think. Hence, the  problem solver creates a  script pattern of how to act in a  similar situation. However, the  similar situation is not the  same one, as in each situation the context, participants, stakeholders, circumstances, factors and other features will be different. Clearly, a script pattern does not fit for all events the problem solver encounters. Duch, Groh, & Allen (2001) stresses that the essence of problem solving is to acquire various experiences and to create cognitive strategies that could be used in the future. What is more, learning process is significant in problem solving, not just outcomes of such learning (Duch, Groh, & Allen, 2001; Yener, 2016). Problem solving as learning from the problem solver requires more than only possessing certain knowledge and operational skills. The  insufficient development of problem solving abilities (PISA, 2015) discloses a  shortage of use only the  rational approach to problem solving. Thus, the emphasis should be put on how to think when solving problems. This means to learn to solve the right problem in the right way. Such an opportunity for problem solving suggests values approach. Problem solving integrating value approach Values integration into problem solving fosters the  way of how to think. However, first is necessary to clarify one subject. Problem solving 370 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and decision-making are presented as separate processes. Therefore, these processes share quite similar steps. According to Huit (1992), this could explain why terms of problem solving and decision-making are sometimes used interchangeably. The  unification of different processes is misleading position. Decision-making is a  selection process where one from several possible solutions is chosen to reach a  desired state (Huit, 1992). Meanwile, problem solving is “a process in which we perceive and resolve a gap between a present situation and a desired goal, with the path to the  goal blocked by known or unknown obstacles” (Huit, 1992, 34). Indeed, decision-making is a part of problem solving. While decision-making through ethical issues encompass values, values are like forgotten theme in problem solving. Nevertheless, values can offer reasonable reinforcement for problem solving. Researchers (Schwartz, 1992; Halstead, 1996; Verplanken & Holland, 2002; Argandona, 2003; Roccas, Sagiv, & Navon, 2017) claim that values guide and affect personal behavior encompassing the ethical aspects of solutions. Further is discussed how this influence manifests. According to Halstead (1996), values are  – principles, fundamental convictions, ideals, standards or life stances which act as general guides to behaviour or as points of reference in decision making or the evaluation of belief or action and which are closely conected to personal integrity and personal identity (p.5). This comprehensive definition of values brightens the  issue. Like others researchers (e.g. Schwartz, 1992; Argandoña, 2003), Halstead‘s (1996) definition highlights the  influence of values on decision-making. Such the  emphasis also makes clearer why decision-making models are more concerned with values than problem solving. Further, by applying values as “normative standards to judge and to chose amongst alternative modes of behaviour” (Schwartz, 1992, 2), the  significance of values for alternatives and their evaluation in problem solving is revealed. Keeney (1996) considers values as the core criteria for evaluating the desirability of any alternative leading to the  desired solution. Thus, values help to create worthier alternatives as well as to evaluate them. Moreover, values encompass the  future consequences of the  solution. When searching for a  solution, the  goal is necessary. As Keeney (1996) represents decision- making approach, he underlines that starting point for decision-making process are values primary expressed in the  goals. Skimina, Cieciuch, & Strus (2018) assert that values reflect the  content of the  goals. On the  whole, values represent the  essential foundation for problem solving and could be integrated into it by several ways (see Figure 2). 371Sandrita Škėrienė. The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach ... Id en tif y th e pr ob le m in a pr ob le m at ic sit ua tio n A na ly ze co nt ex t: re as on , fa ct or s, co nd iti on s, sta ke ho ld er s, di ffe re nt po in ts of vi ew – to d ef in e bo un da rie s Ch oi ce o f va lu e( s) – th e ba sis fo r t he pr ob le m so lu tio n D ef in e a va lu e- ba se d pr ob le m so lu tio n go al – th e de sir ed sta te : H ow I se e? Ju sti fy th e ch os en va lu e- ba se d al te rn at iv e th e le ve l o f re sp on sib ili ty Im pl em en t: Y es - do ne D ev el op va lu e- ba se d al te rn at iv e w ay s o f so lu tio n – th e de sir ab le m od e of co nd uc t: H ow I w ill re ac h? N ot a cc ep ta bl e ju sti fic at io n W ha t? V al ue -b as ed re su lt H ow ? (fr om v al ue -b as ed p os iti on ) Figure 2. The framework of value-based problem solving Based on above mentioned assumptions, the  Figure 2 presents the  framework of value-based problem solving process. This process integrates main steps of problem solving, decision-making and value approach. The  first step encompasses the  recognition of a  problematic situation trying to identify where a problem is and to name it. The second step emphasis the thorough analysis of the identified problem in its context. 372 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 These first two steps allow the  problem solver to draw a  comprehensive picture of the  problem in pursuance to understand it. During such „conversation with the problem“ (Raven, 2000, 479), the problem solver aims to clarify the  nature of the  problem and potential directions for a  solution. Hence, the  analysis of the  context helps to define boundaries of attention (Hester & MacG, 2017). These boundaries encompass values that according to Hester & MacG (2017) are one of the salient qualities of the context and guide the attention of the problem solver into the analyzed problem. The third step requires to choose value (or several) that will help to solve the problem and guide the search of a desired solution. The goal as the desired state based on chosen value (or several) is set in the fourth step. This goal requires answer to the question “How I see the desired end of a  solution?”. The  creation of alternative ways leading to the  desired solution is in the fifth step. The established goal represents the main criteria for the  creation of alternative ways. Further, created alternatives should reveal the  desirable mode of conduct answering to the  question “How I will reach the desired end of a solution?”. The  justification of the chosen alternative way is in the sixth step. As Zsolnai (2008) argues, the perceived responsibility essentially determines the  choice. Thus, the  chosen alternative way represents what level of responsibility the problem solver takes on when solving the  problem. If justification reveals meaningful search for the desired solution in all respects (as mentioned in the analysis of context), the  problem solver will proceed with its implementation. In contrast, the problem solver backs to the creation of the alternative ways for a solution, or even to the analysis of the problem. Overall, the presented process requires paying more attention to the  analysis of the  problem. The  path for a  solution becomes more complex and hardly predictable. However, values guides overall process, not the  problem itself and such the process represents the shift from what to think to how to think. Discussion While education of certain values faces challenges with their internalization (Yazdani & Akbarilakeh, 2017), research in value-based education (Kirschenbaum, 1992), problem-based education (Kirkman, 2017) encourage educators to help learners to identify values, to think about them and to develop higher levels of moral reasoning. Problem solving integrating values could be helpful to foster meaningful learning and to promote the  development of the  capabilities of problem solving and moral reasoning along with responsibility. Mastering these capabilities learners could transfer what their have learned into various situations of their professional and personal life. 373Sandrita Škėrienė. The Integration of Problem Solving and Value Approach ... Duch, Groh, & Allen (2001) consider problem solving as an internal psychological process. Such process during learning leads to a  physical change in the brain which enables learner‘s self-construction process (Duch, Groh, & Allen, 2001; Zull, 2003). The  introduced value-based problem solving process fosters self-construction process of the  problem solver through “four core pillars of learning” (Zull, 2003, p.). First, the problem solver gets information during analysis of the problem and its identification. Second, makes meaning of this information when choose the  value (or several) and sets the  goal. Further, when creates alternative ways for a solution and justify the chosen alternative, the problem solver creates new ideas from these meanings. Finally, the implementation of the chosen and justified alternative represents acting on those ideas. Moreover, such self- construction process forms the problem solver‘s character which according to Argandoña (2003), gives a consistency to subsequent decisions. The implementation of introduced problem solving integrating values could be a  challenge for educators. For teaching and learning purposes, this framework could be incorporated into curriculum. One possibility is to integrate this framework into a particular module / course of the social science curriculum. The  minimal criteria for such module /course could be as follows: supports multidisciplinary approach; includes life-problems solving activities; applies flexible teaching/learning methods; fosters moral and ethical issues. The  particular module / course provide changes that involve the  development of theoretical aspects of problem solving and values. In order to reveal how the  learners have mastered the  theoretical framework, it can be verified in practice, i.e. the learners solve a problem presented by teachers or chosen by the  learners themselves. Another possibility is to design a  new specific module / course based on this theoretical framework. Therefore, this possibility is more challenge and requires relevant competences of the teachers. This problem solving integrating values could serve as a  teaching tool in problem-based learning and case-based learning. Trying to promote learning, several issues need to be considered. First, problem-based learning and case-based learning use prepared cases. The  main weakness of these cases is that learners analyze them through the  lens of a  third person. According to Kirkman (2017), this is a detached point of view. To change such view, author suggests to use problem situations, which “take the focus of a second-person narrative calling for a first person respond”. Moreover, problem situations contribute the  creation of more than one alternative and how each alternative might be implemented referring to values. Second, problem solving as an art (Schoenfeld, 2016) should be fostered. Potentially, the whole process of problem solving integrating values could 374 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 enable learners to learn to create the meaningful and responsible attitude to their life. Regardless of that, the complexity of problem solving integrating values represents its limitation. This process is long enough and requires learners’ effort, time, and motivation. To take advantage of these resources is worth as Kirkman‘s (2017) findings show that becomes “impossible not to attend to values” in various situations when a person learned to think about and noticed them. Conclusions From the perspective of education, problem solving integrating values provides the  problem solver with a  tool that enables the  development of value-based problem solving capability. While the  introduced framework consists of six steps, distinct capabilities are developed in each step. The problem solver is enabled to develop the perception of the problematic situation and to identify the  problem (the first step) as well as to make a thorough analysis of the context where problem emerged (the second step). Problem solver develops a capability to choose a value as the background for the  solution (the third step) and to formulate the value-based goal of the  solution as the  desired result (the fourth step). During the  fifth step the problem solver develops the capability to create value-based alternatives highlighting a  process which reveals how to search the  solution. Finally, problem solver learns to make sound justification which is the rationale for problem solution (the sixth step). Moreover, during value-based problem solving process the  problem solver bases his values twice (first time in the  third step when defines a desired state and second time in the  fourth step when decides on the desirable mode of conduct). Future research could cover the verification of the introduced framework for problem solving integrating values. First possibility is concerned with incorporation of this framework into curriculum. The  creation of educational environments for the  development of value-based problem solving capability is encouraged seeking meaningful incorporation. Second, it could be reasonable to use this framework as innovative activity which fosters learning and the development of variety capabilities, for example, during problem-based learning and case-based learning. 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Educational Leadership, 62(1), 68–72. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.504.5667& rep=rep1&type=pdf. 378 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 NATIONAL LEVEL LARGE-SCALE ASSESSMENT DATA FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING IN CLASSROOM Pavels Pestovs University of Latvia, Latvia Dace Namsone University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Large scale assessments are used for many purposes, but for all purpose’s teachers are rarely recognising the use of large-scale assessment for instructional planning. The feedback from large scale assessment very often is too abstract and of no use to the students, especially if the large-scale assessment is administrated in the end of term. Teachers primarily use their intuition to plan instructional decisions, however in time of vast different political initiatives, it is very important to introduce in school data-driven decision making. Authors are working in the  theoretical framework that assessment data in aligned and interconnected fashion with instruction is important in making high quality educational decisions and data should be interpreted in context to be transformed to the  meaningful information. The study design is based on in-depth analysis of 6th grade national level large- scale assessment data in Science, Native language (Latvian language) and Mathematics and teacher performance data in classroom. In focus groups experts deconstructed the  aggregated data from the  large-scale assessment in several iterations and map items according to the theoretical constructs according to new curriculum reform. Data have been analysed according to the general framework of data-decision making. Authors have found, teacher performance data and deconstructed large-scale assessment data, organized in interconnected way between different subjects, of high use in data driven decision making process. The  authors have piloted the  model, in which deconstructed data were used to make decisions to improve student learning outcomes in classroom. Keywords: large-scale assessment, data-driven decision making, data literacy. Introduction Employment distribution over the  last years has shifted towards jobs with non-routine skills. High cognitive skills encompass problem-solving, abstract reasoning, and decision-making, but low cognitive skills demand basic human adaptability (Dorn, 2009). Therefore, education systems https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.26 Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... 379Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone. National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... shift to the  implementing and promoting higher order thinking skills in curriculum. Countries are trying to their best to improve the  quality of education (Wiliam, 2018a). Similar process is observed in Latvia, where National Centre for Education has launched a  comprehensive curriculum reform, prioritising 21st century skills such as problem solving and critical thinking, collaboration, citizenship, creativity and entrepreneurship, digital literacy and self-regulated learning. The  content of the  curriculum has been organized in seven learning areas: languages, social sciences, cultural understanding and artistic self-expression, natural sciences, mathematics, technology, and health and physical activity with complex learning outcomes which integrates understanding, skills and attitudes (Regulations Regarding the State Standard in Basic Education, the Subjects of Study Standards in Basic Education and Model Basic Educational Programmes, 2018). However, question remains, what education policy will improve quality of education, because even the  robust research results, using randomized controlled trials still tells us only half of the story. The research results are talking about what has worked in the  particular time, place and certain population together with support factors which were in place in that particular place in time, that’s why the  context of the  education policy is of such importance (Cartwright & Hardie, 2012). Especially in time of vast different political initiatives, it is important to introduce in school data driven decision making to evaluate effectiveness of every initiative in specific context, because research shows that even feedback to student can in fact reduce the student achievement (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). In the  research literature through the  randomized and quasi- experimental designs is growing promising evidence that using data can lead to the  improvements of student achievements (Campbell & Levin, 2009). Data decision making has become important theme linked to school accountability, improvement and educational policy (Mandinach & Jackson, 2012). Two significant changes, which facilitates data use, have occurred. Firstly, the shift on the paradigm of assessment from summative to formative, with the  goal to directly use information in improving instruction. Secondly, various technological solutions to manage vast amount of data (Lipton & Wellman, 2012). School teams, which attempt to use data in a  meaningful way, often face several problems during their work with data, both on the individual level (for example, personal and social) and as whole group (for example, technical tools, sharing the  same goal and group interdependency). It is a big mindset change for teacher, when workplace association moves from classroom to school. Structural change doesn’t ensure cultural change, that’s why simply providing time to the  group meeting, doesn’t increase teacher learning (Lipton & Wellman, 2012). 380 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Everyday teachers and school principals are making decisions, which directly or indirectly impact student learning. The view that teachers and principals do not need data, because good decisions are based on experience are prevailed (Schildkamp, Lai, & Earl, 2013). However, there is growing evidence that effective data use strategy improves student achievement. But use of data requires understanding what kind of data is needed and how it will be used (Datnow et al., 2007). A key reason why data can lead to the improvements is the opportunity to monitor if students are reaching their goal and plan intervention on the  fly. Second reason for using data is finding the  most effective and cost-effective pollicises and practices in certain context, which improves student achievement. It is very similar idea about knowing the  impact from the teacher perspective, which is relevant not only for the individual teacher, but also to the school as an organization (Hattie, 2012). Unfortunately the question of “what work” in education can hardly be answered, most often it is very dependable of situation and circumstances (Macpherson & Hendrick, 2019). Therefore, organisation’s learning capability and seeking for the  most effective solutions will be the  only sustainable competitive advantage in the future. It is difficult to image that if teachers are not continuous learners and effective collaborators, they will be able to develop such qualities in students (DuFour, 1997; Kools & Stoll, 2016). General Data Driven Decision framework Data driven decision making in education typically refers to teachers, principals, and administrators systematically collecting and analysing data to guide a range of decisions to help improve the success of students and schools (Schildkamp u.c., 2013). A use of data has become a  strong part of educational policy in the school, district and national level. Researchers have been developed various theoretical frameworks for data-driven decision making (Abbott, 2008; Hamilton et  al., 2009; Ikemoto & Marsh, 2007a; Mandinach et  al.,  2008; Means et  al., 2010; Schildkamp et al., 2013). According to the Schildkamp the process of using data is like the linear process: starting from the purpose and then proceeding to data collection, analysis, interpretation and action. Howt the same time Schildkamp points out that there are some iterations and connections between the  data collection, analysis and interpretations (Schildkamp et al., 2013). Ikemoto and Marsh argues that making data-driven decision simple and straightforward process, we are failing to acknowledge how educators make meaning of the data (Ikemoto & Marsh, 2007b). There are evidence, 381Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone. National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... that models which are implemented, differ from straightforward and linear process. The  variations are so great, that on one extreme for every problem is introduced the  same solution (for example, allocating additional instructional time) to the  models which really are capable of finding causality (Ikemoto & Marsh, 2007b). According to the  Ikemoto and Marsh there are at least four types of data-driven decision making: basic, analysis-focused, data focused, and inquiry focused. Data complexity depends on time, type and level of details, while analysis complexity varies for according to the  technical analysis, iterations and expertise (Fig. 1). Distinction is important to understand that under the  word “data driven based decision making” has been understood very different practices. Although there is no clear prioritising complex versus basic data or analysis, because the  purpose of collecting and using data can be very different. According to Copland (2003), inquiry based analysis is of favour, because it is not only a way for solving problem, but also a way of an organization learning and capacity building (Copland, 2003). Figure 1. Four types of decision making, using different types of data and implementing different types of analysis. From “Cutting Through the “Data- Driven” Mantra: Different Conceptions of Data-Driven Decision Making,” by G. S. Ikemoto and J. a. Marsch, 2007, Yearbook of the National Society for the study of Education, 106. Copyright 2007 by the Blackwell Publishing. Adapted with permission. Yearbook of the National Society for the study of Education by National Society for the Study of Education Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Publishing in the format Republish in a journal/ magazine via Copyright Clearance Center 382 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 In the  article “A Perfect Time for Data Use: Using Data-Driven Decision Making to Inform Practice,” Ellen B. Mandinach (2012) describes a conceptual framework for data-driven decision making and claims that, despite of growth of theoretical frameworks in literature, they consist of similar components: data, information and knowledge. However, in her presented framework, data driven decision making components are supplemented with cognitive skills which are needed to transform data. In order to transform raw data to knowledge, six relevant skills are outlined and embedded in conceptual framework: collecting and organising data, analysing and summarising information, synthesising and prioritising knowledge. The  presented framework is not linear, but is based on the  iterative process, where in the  last phase the  intended impact of intervention or proposed solution has been measured, which most likely leads to next steps of collecting another types of data and different analysis strategies (Mandinach, 2012). In all general data-driven decision making frameworks, the  question remains what type of data is available to teachers or school, how should it be organized in actionable way, not to be the  burden, but be of use to instructional decisions or improvement planning in the  level of school (Mandinach, 2012). Development of the Specific Data Driven Decision-making Framework for School Improvement Student educational achievements as a  separate piece of information is of no use, because mostly people want to know whether the  results are good or not good, and if not good whom to blame, and how to fix whatever is broken. For that we need not only student learning outcomes data, but additional educational, policy and non-educational data, because the impact of these context and non-educational factors can be huge. When school performance is good, the  reason is most likely both  – quality of education and non-educational factors influence. And it is not easy to understand and figure out which is influence more, but it is very important to include such factors in the framework (Koretz, 2008, 2017). According to the research the first and most important factor is teacher quality, although there are some critics for the  research methodology, the conclusions about teacher quality as a main factors has been proved over and over worldwide (Hanushek, 2011; Wiliam, 2018b). The  second most important factor is leadership, which have been studied extensively and the research is clear, that primarily talented leadership serves as a catalyst for developing the potential of the organization. Leadership effect is second 383Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone. National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... only to the teacher quality (Day, Gu, & Sammons, 2016; Hallinger, 2014; Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008). In previous research authors have developed framework to report assessment data on actionable scale for school and teacher (Table 1). For the identification of the level of complexity of item Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy has been used (Biggs & Collis, 1982; Pestovs, Namsone, Čakāne, & Saleniece, 2019). Authors have modified the  original SOLO taxonomy, additionally dividing the  second level of complexity. The II level of complexity has been divided into two groups by varying item context. When the context is familiar to the student, the item has been mapped as IIA level and unfamiliar new context has been mapped as IIB. Average student performance in classroom and school level has been calculated and compared with national level. Table 1. Student achievement reporting framework in Mathematics, Science and Native language (Latvian language) according to the subcomponents and SOLO level of complexity Subject Subject subcomponents SOLO level of complexity I IIA IIB III IV Mathematics Model/formulate Transform/manipulate Infare/draw conclusions Communicate Scientific Explain phenomena scientifically Interpret data and evidence scientifically Evaluate and design scientific enquiry Language Language conventions Retrieve explicitly stated information Interpret and integrate ideas and information Communicate Aim of the Study The aim of the  study is the  development of the  initial framework for making data-driven decisions and piloting the  framework at school level, using one, the  most important key factor  – teacher instructional quality and 6th grade national level large-scale assessment data in Science, Native Language (Latvian language) and Math as a student achievement indicator. 384 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Materials and Methods Authors reviewed several general data-driven decision theoretical frameworks, adapted theoretical framework of the  key factors, which influences the  student learning outcomes and present an effective way of collecting, and organizing data, analysing and summarizing information and synthesizing and prioritizing knowledge to decide and develop action plan for school improvement. In the developed theoretical framework, key educational factors are included, including students’ background data and characteristics (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Conceptual framework of main factors of student learning outcomes. From “Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes: Relationships Across Countries, Cohorts and Time. IEA Research for Education. Volume 2.,” by T. Nilsen & J. E. Gustafsson, 2016, International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Copyright 2016 by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Adapted with changes under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) 385Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone. National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... 1. According to the  previously developed framework, authors identify assessment indicators in the  national level large-scale assessments in the  6th grade in Science, Native language (Latvian language) and Mathematics of the  Year 2019. Assessment indicators are mapped according to the  framework subcomponents and according to the SOLO level of complexity of item. Average achievement results in the classroom and at national level have been calculated, using classical test theory in R 3.6.0. and Microsoft Excel 365 environment. 2. In order to gather data of the  instructional quality, a  previously developed framework has been used to observe teacher performance in classroom. Designed and piloted teacher performance assessment framework for teaching 21st century skills, includes 8 categories and 13 criteria. According to the  theoretical framework, performance level descriptions have been created and validated in the school practice, to assess the performance of teachers. Performance has been described in four levels: from the  0 (not observed) to the  4 (expert performance) (Bertule, Dudareva, Namsone, Cakane, & Butkevica, 2019). In this study three categories and nine criteria have been used during the  lesson observation (Table 2). The  teacher performance, who are teaching in the  6th grade have been analysed in depth, but for school leadership average observed teacher performance in school has been provided in addition. Table 2. Teacher performance assessment categories and criteria to teach 21st century skills (Bertule, Dudareva, Namsone, Čakāne, & Butkēviča, 2019) Category Criteria Levels of performance 0 1 2 3 4 Cognitive activization 2.1 Learning task for cognitive depth 2.2 Classroom discourse Classroom management and clarity of instruction 5.1 Lesson design 5.2 Teaching techniques 6.1 Curriculum Student support 1.1 Learning goals 1.2 Metacognitive skills 5.3 Differentiation, personalization 6.2 Feedback 386 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 3. In the  research participated two municipalities (seven and eight schools in each municipality). In this paper data from one school (three classes) are studied as case study, in order to begin the piloting of developed model. Authors together with leadership team, identified specific patterns according to the school data, which included average achievement data in the 6th grade in Science, Native language (Latvian language) and Mathematics of the  Year 2019 and performance of teachers’ group (number of teachers = 6). Results In the case study, student achievement average data are presented for every 6th grade class (three in total) in one municipality school, according to the Table 1 framework. The total student population in municipality is approximately 700 students. Table 3. Student achievement average data and difference from national level average according to subjects and level of complexity. Municipality School. Grade 6.1 Subject Subject sub-components Average student achievement and the difference with national level student achievement across the country I IIA IIB III % % % % Mathematics Transform / manipulate 63.1 -14.3 72.7 -2.4 28.4 -15.2 35.5 -5.3 Science Explain phenomena scientifically 73.7 -2.2 57.9 -9.3 27.6 -22.3 21.1 -17.9 Evaluate and design scientific enquiry 94.7 14.5 na na 39.5 -14.2 na na Interpret data and evidence scientifically na na 68.4 -5.7 68.4 12.1 39.5 1.4 Latvian Language Language conventions 58.2 -9.5 40.9 -28.6 20.3 -22.0 na na Interpret and integrate ideas and information 70.7 -1.3 83.0 16.0 59.1 3.5 13.6 -18.9 387Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone. National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... Table 4. Student achievement average data and difference from national level average according to subjects and level of complexity. Municipality School. Grade 6.2 Subject Subject subcomponents Average student achievement and the difference with national level student achievement across the country I IIA IIB III % % % % Mathematics Transform / manipulate 52.5 -24.9 67.0 -8.1 29.4 -14.2 29.0 -11.7 Science Explain phenomena scientifically 60.8 -15.1 52.5 -14.7 31.3 -18.7 27.5 -11.5 Evaluate and design scientific enquiry 85.0 4.8 na na 35.0 -18.7 na na Interpret data and evidence scientifically na na 60.0 -14.1 35.0 -21.4 30.0 -8.1 Latvian Language Language conventions 60.9 -6.8 46.7 -22.8 42.3 0.1 na na Interpret and integrate ideas and information 66.0 -6.1 80.4 13.5 54.9 -0.6 23.9 -8.7 Table 5. Student achievement average data and difference from national level average according to subjects and level of complexity. Municipality School. Grade 6.3 Subject Subject subcomponents Average student achievement and the difference with national level student achievement across the country I IIA IIB III % % % % Mathematics Transform / manipulate 64.7 -12.7 69.4 -5.7 30.9 -12.7 24.7 -16.0 Science Explain phenomena scientifically 72.8 -3.1 63.2 -4.0 26.3 -23.6 26.3 -12.6 Evaluate and design scientific enquiry 79.0 -1.3 na na 31.6 -22.1 na na Interpret data and evidence scientifically na na 63.2 -10.9 36.8 -19.5 29.0 -9.1 Latvian Language Language conventions 59.0 -8.7 63.2 -6.4 49.3 7.1 na na Interpret and integrate ideas and information 65.1 -7.0 82.9 15.9 62.2 6.6 50.0 17.4 388 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 During the analysis of the national level large scale assessments of Year 2019, the  authors couldn’t identify assessment items in several subject subcomponents and items, which assessed SOLO IV level of complexity. The  minus symbol represents, that the  average achievement level of the class is below the national achievement level. Table 6. Science, Mathematics and Native language (Latvian language) 6th grade teacher performance level. Municipality School. Grades are indicated Teacher Code Subject/ grade Student support Cognitive activization Classroom management and clarity of instruction 1.1. 1.2. 5.3. 6.2. 2.1. 2.2. 5.1. 5.2. 6.1. 114 Native language / 6.2, 6.3 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 115 Science / 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 116 Native language / 6.1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 118 Mathematics / 6.1 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 120 Mathematics / 6.3 3 2 2  2 3 3  3 3  3  122 Mathematics / 6.2 1 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 2 Average performance of the teachers in the school is presented according to the  three categories and eight criteria (Fig. 3). The  categories and criteria are the same, as discussed in the theoretical framework (Table 2). The maximum scale of the presented diagram is 4, as has been described the level of an expert. Acceptable level of performance is 3, where teacher performance, according to the framework has been described as proficient. Figure 3. Average performance of observed teachers (number = 6) according to the three categories and eight criteria for the developing 21st century skills 389Pavels Pestovs, Dace Namsone. National Level Large-Scale Assessment Data ... Authors point out that for this teacher group strength is the  category of classroom management and clarity of instruction, which includes lesson design, teaching techniques and curriculum, which is suitable to the  student. The performance on three criteria in other two categories is insufficient: classroom discourse, differentiating and student metacognitive skill development. Development of the  school action plan most likely are based on the  criteria, where has been observed as most problematic. Firstly, insufficient Science teacher performance (dominating Level 0 and Level 1) has been identified in category of classroom management and clarity of instruction during study. Average class achievement compared to national average also signalizes the problem. In such case personalized feedback is needed, to improve lesson design, teaching techniques and implemented curriculum. For Mathematics and Native language (Latvian language) teacher professional development mostly is associated with cognitive activization, more productive task development and classroom discourse improvement. Conclusions As every study, this study also has a limitation. Authors point out that, there have been not identified assessment items in all subject subcategories and different SOLO levels of complexity. Some subject subcomponents consist of only several assessment items, which lowers the  reliability of results. Most schools are data rich, but the challenge remains in selecting and analysing the right data to transform it to knowledge. Most often student assessment data has been integrated in the data driven decision making, but these kinds of data don’t point out the solutions, often it is only signalizing the problem. Authors during the research have piloted an initially developed model in which general steps of data driven decision making have been linked to the  theoretical framework, where key factors, which influence student achievement have been identified and teacher instructional performance quality has been assessed in this study, with the  previously developed teacher performance assessment instruments. Using the developed model, it is possible to identify the  weaknesses and strengths of the  observed teacher group. For further research it is necessary to empirically validate the  initially developed model. Develop and empirically validate assessment instruments for the  key factors (leadership practices, student background and characteristics, national and municipality level policy), which are 390 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 influencing student outcomes and evaluate and measure the  impact and effectiveness of developed action plan for the school improvement. This research is supported by the research project “Innovative approaches to evaluate school quality for competence development”. References Abbott, D. V. (2008). A  functionality framework for educational organizations: Achieving accountability at scale. Data driven school improvement: Linking data and learning, 257–276. Bertule, D., Dudareva, I., Namsone, D., Cakane, L., & Butkevica, A. (2019, martā). FRAMEWORK OF TEACHER PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT TO SUPPORT TEACHING 21ST CENTURY SKILLS. 5742–5752. https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2019.1410. 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A Perfect Time for Data Use: Using Data-Driven Decision Making to Inform Practice. Educational Psychologist, 47(2), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.10 80/00461520.2012.667064. Mandinach, Ellen Beth, & Jackson, S. S. (2012). Transforming teaching and learning through data-driven decision making. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Means, B., Padilla, C., & Gallagher, L. (2010). Use of Education Data at the Local Level: From Accountability to Instructional Improvement. US Department of Education. Nilsen, T., & Gustafsson, J. E. (2016). Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes: Relationships across Countries, Cohorts and Time. IEA Research for Education. Volume 2. International Association for the  Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Herengracht 487, Amsterdam, 1017 BT, The Netherlands. 392 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Pestovs, P., Namsone, D., Čakāne, L., & Saleniece, I. (2019). ALIGNMENT OF 6TH GRADE LARGE-SCALE ASSESSMENT CONSTRUCTS WITH THE REVISED CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK. SOCIETY. INTEGRATION. EDUCATION. Proceedings of the  International Scientific Conference, 2, 387. https://doi.org/10.17770/sie2019vol2.3811. Regulations Regarding the  State Standard in Basic Education, the  Subjects of Study Standards in Basic Education and Model Basic Educational Programmes, 747, (2018). Retrieved from https://likumi.lv/ta/id/303768. Schildkamp, K., Lai, M. K., & Earl, L. M. (Red.). (2013). Data-based decision making in education: Challenges and opportunities. Dordrecht ; London ; New York: Springer. Wiliam, D. (2018a). Creating the  schools our children need: Why what we’re doing now won’t help much (and what we can do instead). West Palm Beach, Florida: Learning Sciences International. Wiliam, D. (2018b). Creating the  schools our children need: Why what we’re doing now won’t help much (and what we can do instead). West Palm Beach, Florida: Learning Sciences International. 393Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 FINE MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT IN PRESCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN WITH SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS Lūcija Anoško University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Children with speech and language disorders are characterized not only by the  unique development of the  speech but also by specific characteristics of cognitive and sensory motor skills. The  research was based on the  theoretical recognitions about the  specific characteristics of child development in case of speech ontogenesis and dysontogenesis. In order to specify the  development level of fine motor skills of the  children, the  same diagnostic activities were used that usually are used by the  teachers-speech therapists in order to check the speech and language development of the children, as well as the cognitive and the motor abilities. In addition, the speech and language development of the children was checked. Participants of the  research were the  pre-school age children with different speech and language disorders, ages 3 to 6, totally 27 respondents; they go to the pre-school education institution for children with speech and language disorders. The  children were divided into 2 groups: in the  first group there were non-verbal children (n = 5) and in the  second group there were verbal children with different speech and language disorders (n  =  22). During the  research, there was observation of the  children and corrective developmental intervention. The  results of the  research show that there is strong correlation between the speech development and development of fine motor skills (fine muscles). The reduction of the  speech and language disorders is tightly connected with the  improvement of fine motor skills. Keywords: preschoolers, fine motor skills, speech and language disorders. Introduction The development of a child starts at the moment of birth and continues to develop during the pre-school age. Well-developed fine motor skills play a  big role in the  intellectual and psychophysical development of a  child. The  famous educator Sukhomlynskij said that “the mind of a  child is located at his fingertips” (Сухомлинский, (Suhomlinskij) 1986, 16). The other famous phychophysiologist and movement physiologist Bernstein once said that “during the movement exercise it is not the hand https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.27 Lūcija Anoško Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children ... 394 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 that is trained but the brain” (Бернштейн, (Bernstein) 1990). Simultaneously with hand movements there is the sensory development of speech/language, the ability to express oneself freely. Unless the movements of every finger of hands become free and unrestricted, the correct development of the speech is restricted; if the fingers of hands are developed, the speech and thinking of a child will develop. Developed fine motor skills are a significant element of the psycho-physical, emotional and cognitive development of the child. What are the  fine motor skills? The  fine motor skills are the  ability of fingers to perform all the  differentiated movements that determine a successful establishment of different self-service and learning, work and other operations (Cameron et al., 2012; Семенович, (Semenovich) 2002). The area of fine motor skills includes big number of different movements: from simple gestures (grasping of toys) to very complicated movements (like drawing and writing). In the  traditional ontogenetic understanding a  child discovers the  surrounding world through movements and words and through interaction with it (Семенович, (Semenovich) 2002). As a  result of this interaction, the  consciousness of the  child is formed, and his personality grows and develops as well. In this process action and interaction play the  most important role. Movement and speech are the  most significant factors allowing the child to comprehend the world of objects, to develop the  level of sensory and motoric understanding as the  starting point of personality growth. This process takes a long time: at the moment of birth of the  child the  structure of the  brains of the  left and the  right cerebral hemisphere is identical. When the  functions of hands start to develop, the  cerebral hemisphere of brain that is associated with it is developed more since the  leading impulses get there (Семенович, (Semenovich) 2002). However, when the  level of the  fine motor skills development is low, the speech development of the child will also be impaired, although the  gross motor skills might be within the  standard limitations or even above the standard (Sibley & Etnier, 2003). The goal of the  research is to analyze the  mutual relations between the speech and language disorders and the development of fine motor skills. The methods of the research: analysis of the scientific literature sources, investigation of the children in the context of speech therapy, observation and corrective developmental intervention, summarizing and analysis of the acquired data. Theoretical framework The development of fine motor skills is an important part of the corrective work performed with children with speech disorders. A  pre-school child 395Lūcija Anoško. Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children ... learns about the world around and gets to know it through the activities of hands (Šternfelde, 2017; Brooks, Kempe, 2014; Berninger et al., 2006). This age (from 3 until 6–7 years) is the  most beneficial time to develop the intellectual, psycho-emotional and creative skills – it is the time when cerebral cortex of the  big halves of brains has not yet fully matured. The  child has a  need for movements: move different objects, grab everything with hands, draw, write, get dressed, get shoes on, do other every-day and learning activities. All of those tasks require coordinated and precise movements of palms and fingers. The small muscles of fingers work together with the higher mental functions  – memory, imagination, visual and movement memory, speech (Brooks, Kempe, 2014; Dinehart & Manfra, 2013; Tūbele et al., 2013; Loras et al., 2013). Many researchers confirm that exercising the fine movements of fingers stimulates the general and speech development of a child (Cameron et al., 2012; Kurtz, 2008; Berninger et al., 2006; Sibley & Etnier, 2003; Семенович, (Semenovich) 2002; Бернштейн, (Bernstein) 1991; Кольцова, (Kolcova) 1973). The  development of the  psychomotor characteristics happens in all types of the  motoric spectrum: gross motor skills, fine motor skills, articulation. The  famous educator Montessori has based her pedagogical method on the idea about the possibility to stimulate the activity of brains using the  exercises of hands; the more the hands of a  child are involved in different kind of activities, the better other cognitive processes develop. The fine motor skills develop naturally from the early age of the infant. In the pre-school age, they continue to develop and become more complicated (Turkington, Harris, 2006). For a  3 years old child there are following characteristics of fine motor skills of hands: holding the  pencil in hands, drawing with pencils, building houses from 8–9 blocks, catching the ball with both hands; then at the age of 6 years the child can draw letters and numbers, the holding strength of the hands has developed, the  child can cut out pictures using scissors. The play methods for hand exercises of children are activities that are universally didactic and developing (Brice, 2007). The main idea of play methods is based on the  knowledge that the  ends of nerves in the  tips of fingers influence the  brain of a  child, and brain activity is therefore activated. Finger games is a great tool preparing the hands of children for writing (Dinehart & Manfra, 2013), therefore the  level of development of fine motor skills is a crucial element in order to evaluate whether the child is ready for the  school (Suggate et al., 2017; Bindman et al., 2014). In modern days there are high requirements regarding children who start learning in the school: they need to be well prepared. If the movements of fingers of a child have not developed sufficiently, there can be problems to learn to write, therefore it is so important to enhance the abilities of fine 396 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 motor skills in the pre-school age so that the process of learning to write would be more successful. Methodology Research took place from September 2018 until January 2019 in the preschool educational institution of Riga for children with speech and language disorders. Participants of the research were twenty-seven children of different ages (from 3 until 6 years old) and with different speech and language disorders. At the beginning of the research five children are non- verbal (two girls and three boys), twenty-two children are verbal (five girls and seventeen boys) with speech disorders with different etiology. Methods used for the  research: exploring of the  anamnesis of every child (at the beginning of the research in September); analysis of the fine motor skills and speech and language in the starting phases and at the end of the research; analysis of the interaction between finger development and speech development using the Pearson correlation coefficient. Results During this research, the  focus is mainly on the  development level of fine motor skills. The research was divided into 3 phases: 1. phase: Testing of the  speech and language abilities and the development of the fine motor skills of the children. 2. phase: Corrective actions for the improvement of the speech and fine motor skills. 3. phase: A repeated investigation of the speech and fine motor skills of the children as well as summarization, comparison, and analysis of the survey results. In the beginning of September (2 weeks) the investigation of the language and speech abilities was done as well as the testing of the fine motor skills individually and in small groups (2–3 children). Speech abilities were tested according to several criteria: (understanding of speech – impressive language; usage of speech  – expressive language; connected speech; pronunciation/articulation; skills of the  phonological perception, skills of analysis and synthesis; pronunciation of words with complicated syllable structure). All criteria have distinct indicators that provide understanding about the  level of speech skills of the  respondent and compliance with the standards of ontogenesis (see Table1). 397Lūcija Anoško. Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children ... Table 1. Investigation of the language and speech abilities Criteria Indicates/ years Impressive speech 3 years 4 years 5-6 years is able to show pictures of nouns, verbs and adjectives that are used daily, can execute 2-level instructions, understands 3 prefixes from 4 (in, above, under, from executes 2-3-level instructions, has good orientation skills around the room, recognizes “next to, behind, many, few, one”, is able to show pictures: nouns, verbs and adjectives, basic colors; understands the correlation bet ween cause and consequences executes complicated instructions, is able to distinguish between similar word combinations Expressive speech 3 years 4 years 5-6 years creates com- plete sentences, is able to say nouns, verbs and adjectives used daily, can say own name, gender and age creates a sentence from 5–7 words, the speech is gram- matically formed, can name pictures: nouns, verbs and adjectives, basic colors; seasons of year, parts of a day tells about things depicted on the picture: names the objects in one word/creates sentences from two words/uses longer sentences; understands the cor relation between cause and con sequences, can name days of the week, seasons of a year, months in sequence Pronunciation 3 years 4 years 5-6 years replaces/ doesn’t pronounce some sounds replaces/ doesn’t pronounce some sounds pronounces all sounds Phonological perception 3 years 4 years 5 year 6 year repeats at least two-syllable rows with sounds of early ontogenesis repeats two-syllable rows with sounds of early ontogenesis repeats three- syllable rows with sounds of early ontogenesis and sibilants; is able to determine the first sound in the word repeats three- syllable rows with sounds of early ontogenesis and sibilants; is able to determine the first and the last consonant in the word; is able to determine the sequence of sounds in the word Pronunciation of words with complicated syllable structure 3 years 4 years 5-6 years words with one and two syllables words with two syllables words with three-five syllables 398 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Each task is evaluated on the  scale from 1 to 3 where 1 point means that the child did not fulfil the task; 2 points mean that the child performed the task with the help or by repeating; 3 points mean that the child fulfilled the task. This evaluation was done individually, taking into account the psycho- emotional condition of every child at the  moment of the  evaluation. The  duration of each session differed depending on the  age of the  child and how ready the child was for the cooperation (minimum 5–10 minutes, maximum 20 minutes). Another important criterion for the evaluation was the current level of speech and language abilities of the child. If the child was verbal, then all criteria of speech development were tested; if the child was non-verbal, the impressive speech of the child was tested. The following criteria were established to evaluate the  development level of the fine motor skills for each child (see Table 2). Table 2. Fine motor skills development Criteria Tests Kinetic/dynamic skills* Fingers position Graphical skills “First – edge – palm” (A. Luria) Finger movements Reciprocal skills** Fingers “marching” “First – edge – palm” (both hands) (Luria) *kinetic abilities (can the child keep the specified posture); *dynamic abilities (can the child switch from one activity to another activity); **reciprocal abilities (ability of the child to perform activities with both hands). In the practical sense, the task was performed in the following sequence: • try-out evaluation movements that are not evaluated; • afterwards the speech therapist shows exercises that the child has to repeat. If the child is not able to fulfill the task, the movement is shown again, and the child tries to repeat it again. If this also does not help, the method of passive movements is used: the tester positions the hand and fingers of the child in the correct position and then the child repeats the movement again by copying the tester. Every test is evaluated according to the scale from 1 to 3 where: 1 point – the child did not perform the task; 2 points – the task was performed with the help of the adult; 3 points – the child performed the task. The kinetic and dynamic praxis include different tests, for example: 399Lūcija Anoško. Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children ... The tester asks the  child to show “a rabbit”, “a rooster”, “a goat”. The  rest of the  fingers need to be pressed to the  palm and held in this position for the time when it is counted to 10. The interpretation of test results. The child is able to manage the bending muscles if he is able to keep the  specific posture without straightening the fingers. The child is not sufficiently able to manage the bending muscles or is not able to manage them at all if fingers straighten unwillingly. The establishing of the level of the graphical skills of the dominant hand. The process of testing. A pencil is given to the child and it is observed how the  child is holding the  pencil. Then the  child is offered to draw 2 lines according to a  template (a vertical and a horizontal line). Then the child needs to fill in the given template with the color using the colored pencils or crayons. The result of the  test is determined by a  correct line, correct body posture during the work, by the fact if the movements of hand are relaxed. The switching of finger movements of the dominant hand “Fist – edge – palm” (Лурия, (Luria) 1973) The process of the test. The tester offers the child to repeat a series of nine movements after himself. The  series consist of movements that are repeated three times: “Fist – edge – palm”. There might be a disturbance: switching from one type of movement to the next; sequence of the movements. Interpretation of test results. Switching between movements is considered sufficient, if the instructions of the tester are performed without mistakes. The  switching is considered insufficiently developed if the  switching of hand movements is disturbed: when the  character of child’s movements does not correspond with the instructions given by the tester. Test to evaluate the level of precision of execution of finger movements “Fingers greet each other”. The tester offers the child to make circles with the thumb and index finger and then with other fingers in a sequence. Interpreting of test results. The  precision of finger movements is considered sufficient if the  child switches between the  fingers swiftly, not making mistakes in the  switching sequence. The  precision of finger movements is considered not sufficient when the  child executes the movements incorrectly, movements are clumsy, child makes mistakes in the sequence of actions. The reciprocal praxis is tested using the following tests: The test of “marching” with the fingers on the table. The tester shows the task to the child: the index finger and the middle finger are “marching”. Both hands do the action simultaneously. The test “fist – edge – palm” (Лурия, (Luria) 1973). The test is performed with both hands simultaneously, repeating the series of nine movements. 400 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 According to the  results of the  diagnostics that was done in September among the  twenty-two verbal un five non-verbal children the  conclusion could be made that the  level of speech and language development was average for eighteen children, low for five children and very low for four children. This can be concluded from the  initial evaluation when none of the children could obtain the maximum number of points. The best result among the non-verbal children is 21 points out of 42 available, that one child obtained, among the  verbal children one child obtained 40 points, two children 38 points, four children 37 points. The  majority of verbal children showed the average level of speech development. Also, the  fine motor skills tests showed that the  results for the  non- verbal children were lower compared to the verbal children with different speech disorders. For the children who are non-verbal in the beginning of September, when tests are performed, the dynamic and reciprocal praxis is very low. The kinetic abilities are also not sufficiently developed. Regarding the verbal children, the kinetic and dynamic skills are well developed, they struggle with the tasks for checking the reciprocal abilities. In order to establish if there is a  statistically significant correlation between the level of speech development and fine motor skills development, the  Pearson correlation coefficient was used. There is an analysis of the  results acquired in September, so it can be concluded that there is a  strong correlation (r = 0.886) between the  researched criteria (see Figure 1). FMS – fine motor skills SD – speech development Figure 1. Pearson correlation coefficient between the level of speech development and fine motor skills development (September) According to the  diagnostics results, corrective development activities were performed with all the  children, especially with the  non-verbal 401Lūcija Anoško. Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children ... children and verbal children whose fine motor skills were not sufficiently developed, especially the dynamic and reciprocal skills. In order to improve the  development of fine motor skills different exercises and play methods were used: (playing with small objects, playing with yarn, puzzles, construction sets, counting sticks, activities with paper, activities with pencils, colours and brushes, crayons, finger games in a dry pool). In order to improve the  speech quality, specific exercises were developed for articulation and breathing, exercises for developing of phonological awareness, games and activities for creation and improvement of communication skills, tasks for improving the  lexical structure and grammatical constructions. The diagnostics were repeated in January after finishing the  series of sessions of corrective and developmental speech therapy and sessions to improve the fine motor skills of fingers. The methods used were the same as in the  beginning of the  research. Results showed significant changes in the  fine motor skills area where one child obtained 44 points, that is the highest result after the intervention. Six children obtained a high result of 43 points out of 45 available, five children 42 points, four children 41 points, and five children 40 points, six children obtained average results from 26 to 34 points. FMS – fine motor skills SD – speech development Figure 2. Pearson correlation coefficient between the level of speech development and fine motor skills development (January) There are also positive results in the  development of speech and language. All children use verbal communication as the  main method of communication. Children who were non-verbal in September (n = 5), in January, were in the group of children who were poorly verbal, and this 402 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 demonstrates the  improvement in their speech abilities. When comparing the development level of language and speech skills and the development of fine motor skills, it can be concluded that in January (see Figure 2) there is a significant correlation between these criteria with a positive coefficient (r = 0.836). SD – speech development Figure 3. Pearson correlation coefficient between the level of speech development in September and the level of speech development in January FMS – fine motor skills Figure 4. Pearson correlation coefficient between fine motor skills development in September and in January By evaluating the results from September and January it can be concluded that the  speech abilities have improved (see Figure 3), the  mobility and skills of fingers have improved (see Figure 4), and there is a  statistically significant connection and a  correlation between the  development of speech and fine motor skills. At the end of the research, positive dynamics 403Lūcija Anoško. Fine Motor Skills Development in Preschool-Age Children ... can be observed, and it can be concluded that the improvement of one skill subsequently increases the values of other skills. Conclusions Insufficient development of the fine motor skills influences the  speech development of the child: if the level of the fine motor skills development is low then the speech development of the child is also disturbed; For non-verbal children the level of the fine motor skills development is lower than for verbal children; The corrective developmental activity sessions for the development of the fine motor skills brought positive results; The activity sessions for the  development of the  fine motor skills for non-verbal children with low level of the  fine motor skills development showed positive dynamics. The results of the  experimental research are provisional, and they need to be tested with a bigger number of children for a longer period of time. References Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Jones, J., Wolf, B. J., Gould, L., Anderson– Youngstrom, M. et al. (2006). Early development of language by hand: Composing, reading, listening, and speaking connections; three letter – writing modes; and fast mapping in spelling. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29(1), 61–92. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1207/ s15326942dn2901 5. Bindman, S. W., Skibbe, L. E., Hindman A. H., Aram, D., Morrison F. J. (2014). Parental Writing Support and Preschoolers’ Early Literacy, Language, and Fine Motor Skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, Q4 2014, Vol. 29(4), 614–624. DOI: 10.1016/ j.ecresq.2014.07.002. Brice, B. (2007). Pirkstiņu rotaļas [Finger Games]. Rīga: RaKa. Brooks, P., Kempe, V. (2014). Encyclopedia of Language Development. United Kingdom: Wiley–Blackwell. Cameron, C. E., Brock, L. L., Murrah, W. M., Bell, L. H., Worzalla, S. L., Grissmer, D., Morrison, F. J. (2012). Fine Motor Skills and Executive Function Both Contribute to Kindergarten Achievement. Child Development. 2012 Jul–Aug; 83(4): 1229–44. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01768.x. Dinehart, L., & Manfra, L. (2013). Associations Between Low-Incom Children’s Fine Motor Skills in Preschool and Academic Performance in Second Grade. Early edeucation and Development, 2013, Vol. 24 (2), Retrieved from https://primolatvija.hosted. exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=TN_ericEJ1010187&context. Kurtz, L. A. (2008). Understanding Motor Skills in Children with Dyspraxia, ADHD, Autism, and Other Learning Disabilities: A  Guide to Improving Coordination. Jessica Kingsley Publishers London and Philadelphia. 404 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Loras, H., Stensdotter, A.-K., Ohberg, F., Sigmundsson, H. (2013). Individual differences in motor timing and its relation to cognitive and fine motor skills. PLoS ONE, Vol. 8(7), p.e.69353. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069353. Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A  meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, Human Kinestetics Publishers, Inc. Suggate, S., Stoeger, H., Fischer, U. (2017). Finger-Based Numerical Skills Link Fine Motor Skills to Numerical Development in Preschoolers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, December 2017, Vol. 1249(6), 1085 – 1106. DOI: 10.1177/0031512517727405. Šternfelde, I. (2017). Sīkās motorikas attīstīšana pirmsskolas vecuma bērniem: metodiskais materiāls. [Developing of the fine motor skills in preschool age children: methodological guide] Rīga: Pētergailis. Tūbele, S., Landra, T., Šūmane, I., Burčaka, M., Laganovska, E., Kušnere, S., Vīgante, R. (2013). Metodiskais materiāls pedagogiem darbam ar izglītojamiem ar jauktiem attīstības traucējumiem. [The methodological guide for teachers to work with children with mixed developmental disorders] Rīga: VISC. Turkington, C., Harris, J. (2006). The  Encyclopedia of Learning Disabilities. Second Edition. New York: American Bookworks. Бернштейн, Н. А. (1990). Физиология движений и активность (Fiziologia dvizhenij i aktivnostj) [Movements physiology and activity]. Москва: Наука. Бернштейн, Н. А. (1991). О ловкости и ее развитии (O lovkosti i jeje razvitii) [Dexterity and its development]. Москва: Физкультура и спорт. Кольцова, М. М. (1973). Ребенок учится говорить (Rebenok uchitsja govoritj) [The child is studying to speak]. Москва. Лурия, А. Р. (1973). Основы нейропсихологии (Osnovy nejropsihologii) [The working brain: An introduction of neuropsychology]. Москва: Издательство Московского университета. Семенович, А. В. (2002). Нейропсихологическая диагностика и коррекция в детском возрасте (Nejropsihologicheskaja diagnostika i korrekcija v detskom vozraste) [Neuropsychology diagnostic and correction in childhood]. Москва: Академия. Сухомлинский, В. А. (1986). Сто советов учителю (Sto sovetov uchitelju) [100 Pieces of advice for school teacher]. Киев: Радянська школа. 405Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICAL THINKING IN EDUCATION OF LATVIA: SITUATION ANALYSIS AND OPTIMISATION STRATEGY Zanda Rubene University of Latvia, Latvia Artis Svece University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to analyze the experience of developing critical thinking in schools and higher education institutions of Latvia within the last 20 years. It should be emphasized that 2018 marks the 20th anniversary since the project to develop critical thinking approach in the education of Latvia was started. That is a significant reason to look back and also to evaluate critically the progress made in this area. Even though critical thinking has been important for the  educational practice in Latvia since mid-90ties of the  20th century, it is still a  subject of heated debate. As a  Post-Soviet state, Latvia joined the  critical thinking promotion movement in 1998 with a  view to advance a  more rapid formation of a  democratic consciousness in the  society. Education was perceived as a means to socially transform (i.e., democratize) the society. But the study “On the use of the critical thinking development approach in educational system: its impact and effectiveness in Latvia” that was done ten years later, in 2008, demonstrated that no significant changes had taken place in the  education system of Latvia in those ten years. The social studies of recent years even suggest that the  society of Latvia is becoming more radicalized. The same processes could be at work in another area of education development, one can observe difficulties with understanding and promoting media literacy in the context of the  society of Latvia becoming digitalized. This study analyzes the  reasons behind the  current state of affairs and suggest some ways forward. Notwithstanding the polarization of opinion, critical thinking in Latvia is still considered to be a means to reach participatory democracy and create a democratic model of education. Keywords: critical thinking, critical thinking approach in education, a  democratic model of education. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.28 Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... 406 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Introduction Freedom, responsibility and tolerance are considered to be values that are particularly significant for a  democratic society; however, ensuring these values is one of the most difficult tasks for the democratic society. Safety that is rooted in freedom, not the  restriction of freedom, is a vital condition of this society. This means that a  member of a  democratic society has to develop such personal qualities that would give a possibility to be aware of and cultivate the  critical understanding of one’s freedom and at the  same time to understand and respect the other person’s rights to it. Thus, one of the  key objectives of modern education is to promote the  development of such a  society the  representatives of which value highly every person’s ability to be free, tolerant and critically thinking. They should respect every person as an individuality but also be aware of the  belonging and involvement as personally meaningful values that include both the  social, universal, and ecological dimension. This process should start with the  individual’s self-awareness, self-reflection and self- criticism (Rubene, 2008). The dynamic development of the  society incites the  education to react to the  social and cultural novelties, reorganizing continually and seeking adequate solutions to the  challenges of the  age. The  traditional understanding of education as passing the  knowledge and principles of one generation to the next is replaced by a new one the aim of which is to prepare new generations for the  life in the  future society emphasizing the necessity to activate pupils and students’ thinking potential, to develop independent inquiry skills for solving the tasks presented by the changing social environment and global challenges. One of the  most important factors in today’s social transformations is the development of information technologies. It influences the demand for critical thinking skills for two reasons at least. First, information technologies change considerably the situation in the labour market and understanding of the concept of work. This, in turn, means that in future more than today the  employees, professionals and creators of their own jobs will need the skills that will allow them to adjust dynamically to the rapid changes in the  social, economic, business and technology environment (Schwab, 2016). Critical thinking is one of such skills. For instance, the  European Council mentions it as a  vital part of several key competences (literacy, digital entrepreneurship) that a person needs to be able to join successfully the labour market (Council of the European Union, 2018). Secondly, the  development of information technologies increases rapidly the  amount, diversity and quality of the  information accessible in the  public space. The  way we communicate, perceive and analyse 407Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... information changes (Eriksen, 2001). The  dissemination of “fake news”, trends of manipulated populism in several Western democracies, as well as the  success of state-organized cross-border propaganda give cause for concern about the  capacity of critical thinking to influence society and the possible threats that result from the impoverishment of the judgment. Nowadays it is difficult to evaluate information; there is a  possibility to manipulate with it easily, and it evidently exerts impact on the  public opinion and the quality of the public discussion (Rifkins, 2004; McIntyre, 2018). Still, critical thinking as a  means for developing independent thinking is considered by many to be a solution to these problems. One should not forget another reason why the  inability to evaluate the information critically and to form a qualitative discussion is dangerous to democratic societies. Since Enlightenment critical thinking has been considered an important means to avoid violent conflicts. Critical thinking is not just about the  ability to evaluate information, it is also a  tradition essential for democracy in which conflicts are solved through a reasoned discussion. If there is no discussion and consensus at the end of the discussion then the quarrel has to be solved with the help of violence. Accordingly, if these assumptions are correct then the inability to listen to arguments, the lack of any tolerance towards another opinion, the inability to reach the decision in the discussion that is acceptable to all parties, even if not perfect, can turn out to be a way to the society in which violent conflicts become commonplace. It does not mean that the critical thinking tradition is untouched by power relations and does not have its normalization aspects. Therefore, in the  end the  question about critical thinking is the  question about the  society we want to live in, and correspondingly, how do we imagine the future of the world, Europe and Latvia. Thus the question about the forms and methods in education that help to develop the  learner’s skills to analyse and assess the  diverse social processes becomes crucial. Respectively, the skills of independent learning and formation of judgments in modern social sciences are considered one of the  most significant means for the  person’s self-realization in society. Not only pedagogues, but also sociologists, philosophers, anthropologists, psychologists and political scientists have joined the  discussion about the conception of the future education and upbringing. Representatives of different social sciences and humanities are preoccupied with the  social identity problem, the  problem of stereotypical thinking, and the  issue of accepting the difference. Thus, the clarification of pedagogical possibilities of improving critical thinking becomes one of the  topical problems in modern education. Although the method of forming critical judgments has been seriously analysed and explored since the 18th century in European scientific thought, 408 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 debates still continue, and also in the  in pedagogical discourse of Latvia, the  concept of critical thinking has raised discussions (Rubene, 2008; Rubene, Svece, 2018). There is a part of the society in Latvia which is close to the  science and practice of pedagogy and supports the  introduction of critical thinking approach in schools and universities. There are also those who consider the pedagogical model related to this theory to be imported from America and assess rather sceptically its adaptation possibilities in Latvia. Both groups are participating in these discussions. However, despite the  polarization of opinions, critical thinking has been a  well-known phenomenon in Latvia since 90ies of the 20th century. Yet, it has to be admitted that in 20 years, on the  one hand, critical thinking as a phenomenon of education has become known and accustomed in Latvia, on the other hand – effective development of critical thinking is still considered problematic in the education of Latvia. Idea of critical thinking in the education discourse in the 20th century Critical thinking in the context of education is explained as understanding of good thinking, as a  pedagogical approach, or a  set of teaching and learning strategies the  aim of which is to promote independent thinking, considering it as the  opposite to mechanical memorization, repetition, application of rigid models. Critical thinking is explained also as a method for making meaningful and responsible decisions both in teaching/learning and social spheres (Rubene, 2016). The critical thinking phenomenon in the  context of education has developed in two relatively independent directions  – one of them implements the development of critical thinking directly, i.e., as a separate school subject, the other – indirectly, i.e., as a transversal skill of the whole teaching/learning process (Klafki, 1998; McPeck, 1981; Rubene, 2008). The direct approach of developing critical thinking emerged in the USA where it has been considered a  serious part of pedagogical theory and practice since the 70ies of the 20th century. In the 80ies of the 20th century, the critically reflective paradigm of education that envisaged the inclusion of critical thinking as a  subject in the  teaching/learning content was already considered a  point of reference for the  education system reforms in the  USA (Kincheloe, 2000; McPeck, 1981; Rubene, 2008). Critical thinking in the pedagogical practice of the USA is known as the movement of informal logic and critical thinking, the  key driving force of which is the demand for general judgment skills, and the task of which is to improve the  judgment, argumentation, critical analysis and debating skills with the help of methods specifically developed for this purpose. Thus, the basis 409Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... of research interest is the development of pedagogical conditions and tools for purposeful and effective development of learners’ logical thinking skills (Ennis, 1996; McPeck, 1981). Critical thinking in this approach is understood as a rational action of individual consciousness that possesses the ability to identify and reflect on one’s thinking process and that is necessary for productive functioning in the society. Robert Ennis, Richard Paul, Mathew Lipmann a. o. are named as the  leading representatives of the  direct critical thinking approach in education (Ennis, 1996; McPeck, 1981; Paul, 1990). The direct critical thinking movement in education has created several fundamental conceptual questions in its development, e.g., whether the direct development of critical thinking in school really brings the desired outcomes – it is possible, it is better to teach the reasoning skills indirectly in the process of studying philosophy, mathematics, or classical languages (Hinkkanen, 2000; Kincheloe, 2000; Paul, 1990). The acquisition of critical thinking as a  separate school subject has also incited the  discussion that is connected with the  opinion that every branch of science presupposes a specific way of reasoning therefore it is possible to learn it only within the framework of this science. It has to be admitted that the above mentioned discussions are rather well- grounded. Reducing critical thinking to the  logically argumentative aspect and understanding it as a reflection on the cognitive process, the aspect of “criticism” in critical thinking is curtailed and understood very narrowly. This discussion continues also in the pedagogical discourse of Latvia, especially concerning the  use of the  critical thinking concept in the  accepted sense of pragmatism pedagogy  – automatic, non-reflected transfer of concepts from one tradition to the other is criticized. The discussion about the use of the concept “critical thinking” in the education of Latvia is commendable not just because critical evaluation of concepts is the requirement of the critical judgment method but also because it promotes research in this sphere. In the  education research of the  turn of the  20th and 21st centuries, critical thinking is called formal when it is reduced to the  development of formal analysis and argumentation skills or culture-neutral critical thinking. Emphasizing the idea about the acquisition of effective strategies and techniques as a means of developing critical thinking, the development of critical thinking in school is often reduced to the acquisition of teaching/ learning methods  – learners train isolated cognitive skills and receive assessment but they do not apply them in their everyday life. It is claimed that the main mistake of the programme as it was introduced in education system is the loss of the idea of total integrity of critical thinking, dividing it in concrete skills. The assumption that parts joined together will equal the whole has turned out to be a hasty one. It has to be admitted that in 410 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 this case the  whole is much broader and more complicated than simply the sum of the parts (Hinkkanen, 2000; Kincheloe, 2000). Critical thinking in this approach is being hyper-rationalized, reduced to the  totality of cognitive skills that facilitates instrumental knowledge but tries to distance itself from political and ethical dimensions. Critical thinking thus loses its reflective character in its broader sense and becomes disinterested because it is perceived as a  cognitive process which takes place in vacuum. The  fact that critical thinking always requires personal transformation is forgotten. Students are taught to differentiate, to group, to divide in categories, to distinguish essential information from irrelevant, to draw conclusions, to justify claims, etc. while staying in the boundaries of formal thinking, learning a fragmented and simplified version of scientific thinking (Hinkkanen, 2000; Kincheloe, 2000, Rubene, 2008). The second approach which develops critical thinking as a  transversal skill in the whole teaching/learning content has been formed in the context of critical pedagogy, which emphasizes the  independent, emancipating advancement of critical self-reflection for the  development of democratic society. Such concepts as critical judgment, learning, emancipation, auto- nomy, judiciousness should become the leading motive in today’s democratic society in which people can influence the  social conditions and to use them rationally (Klafki, 1998; Kron, 1999). The  aim of critical pedagogy is to develop critical thinking as a  transversal skill, i.e., to promote social transformations with the  help of sensibly thinking individuals. Critical pedagogy, too, announced itself in the 70ies of the 20th century; its most significant representatives are Wolfgang Klafki, Paulo Freire and others. A specifically elaborated teaching/learning methodology is less characteristic to critical pedagogy; it emphasizes more a  particular view for explaining the localization of social problems with the help of judicious action, emancipation and self-determination. The person’s independence and self-determination has to be developed through education, the  individual education process is treated as a socially conditioned process. The objective of the pedagogical action is to give a formation possibility for the individual who is ready for democratization, emancipation, mental maturity and self- determination (Klafki, 1998; Rubene, 2016). The  criticism of ideology in critical pedagogy is looked upon as a teaching/learning method for shaping the sense of common responsibility, for finding out and preventing the risks that threaten democracy. The approach that critical pedagogy has chosen for developing critical thinking in education has also provoked discussions. Representatives of critical pedagogy are criticized for the  lack of precise methodological instructions that improve critical thinking. Also, the  very idea of emancipatory pedagogy – the  possibilities to form an individual who is 411Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... completely free and who is not connected with his social and cultural historical situation – is being questioned (Kincheloe, 2000; Rubene, 2016). Namely, time and space restricts the  individual, thus also his potential possibilities are restricted. It is connected with the social political experience and memory of Europe − the  historically acquired prudence makes us doubt the  belief in the  unlimitedness of human thinking abilities. Thus, the  very idea of a  critically thinking personality is being problematized. However, it has to be admitted that in the  context of society’s digitalization one can hear more often an opinion that indirect development of critical thinking, e.g., its acquisition synthesizing critical thinking and media literacy, has to be considered the most optimal pedagogical strategy (Rubene, Svece, 2018). The development of critical thinking in the education system of Latvia has been rather unique – there have been attempts to implement both direct and indirect approach of developing critical thinking in the  school and university practice. Unfortunately, the situation in the field of developing critical thinking in the  education of Latvia can also be described as unsystematic, untargeted and fragmentary. Critical thinking in general comprehensive education in Latvia In 2018, the  approach of developing critical thinking celebrated 20 years in Latvia. In 1998, the program “Transformation in Education” was launched with the support of Open Society Institute and Soros Foundation in Latvia and the  ambitious movement to develop critical thinking was initiated. The movement focused on promoting the critical thinking skills of school teachers and academic staff of higher education institutions. Numerous further education courses were organized, several textbooks were published, and the idea of developing critical thinking was integrated into education standards of Latvia. It is necessary to emphasize the  fact that all of this happened shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The purpose of developing critical thinking in education in the 90ies of 20th century was a necessity to accelerate the  development of democratic consciousness in society more rapidly, considering education as a  means of social transformation of the  society – a  means of democratization. In the  post-Soviet society there was a  lack of ideas and skills relevant to democracy – such as argumentation skills, civic participation, openness to diversity, etc. Therefore, the  development of critical thinking in Latvia should have become an important milestone for the  transformation of public opinion. Naturally, there emerges a  question whether the  disposition of critical thinking has overall increased in education and society? 412 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The non-governmental organisation “Education Development centre” (EDC), which is considered the  most significant implementer of critical thinking development programmes in Latvia, in cooperation with International Reading Association and Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking International Consortium, RWCT IC during the  time period from 2004 till 2017 has organized further education courses and professional development of teachers and other educationalists in Latvia in the  field of developing critical thinking. EDC data show that 13 414 teachers and education-related specialists have finished such professional development courses (EDC, 2018). EDC has acted as the  deliverer of courses for developing critical thinking skills, has contributed to the  improvement of knowledge and skills of university academic staff and other educationalists, has initiated discussions about the  promotion of the  critical thinking approach for university academic staff, education policy makers, education leaders and society representatives. However, on the  whole the  results of education research allow us to conclude that the development of critical thinking in education in Latvia has not reached the aims intended by the implementers of this idea (Baltic Institute of Social Sciences, 2008; ICCS, 2016). In 2008, the Education Development centre together with Baltic Institute of Social Sciences performed a  study “On the  use of the  critical thinking development approach in educational system: its impact and effectiveness in Latvia”. The aim of the research was to explore the impact and effectiveness of critical thinking in education system and to gain understanding and evaluation of the involved target groups within the period of 10 years. This research served for the  society of Latvia as a  summary and reflection on the development within critical thinking in the context of education. Although the study marked many benefits gained from the im plementa- tion of the  critical thinking approach in the  education of Latvia, e.g., students had developed a number of skills necessary for learning (the skill to select and structure information, to work in a group, to cooperate, etc.), this approach had made the teaching/learning process more interesting and attractive as well as positive changes were observed in the mutual interaction models of teachers and pupils, the  study still did not show considerable changes in the improvement of critical thinking in the education system on the whole (Baltic Institute of Social Sciences, 2008). It was concluded that the  requirements to develop learners’ critical thinking skills appear only fragmentarily in the education policy documents of Latvia. One of the main reasons for such a conclusion was the fact that teachers used the critical thinking approach in schools based on the notion that this approach is a  combination of various interactive teaching methods. Teachers lacked conceptual understanding of the  approach of 413Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... critical thinking from the perspective of philosophy of education; therefore, they were largely unaware of the  impact of these methods in the  social sphere. Teachers admitted that they also had difficulty changing their usual working style. As a result, they used the new methods to work “as usual” (Baltic Institute of Social Sciences, 2008). As a  problem in implementing the  critical thinking development approach was mentioned not only teachers’ insufficient readiness to adopt this approach, but also the parents’ attitude. For parents, it seemed more important to have children receiving a  certain amount of knowledge at school rather than the  ability to analyse and evaluate this knowledge. Therefore, they considered the development of critical thinking insignificant. Overall the  authors of the  research came to the  conclusion that by improving the  models of teachers education, by eliminating fragmentation in education practice, and also by anticipating conceptual changes in of the study process, growth of effectiveness of the  critical thinking approach are expected (Baltic Institute of Social Sciences, 2008). In the  last 10 years the  relevance of critical thinking to the society of Latvia has only grown – it has social and political, local and global causes. Developing critical thinking in the context of digitalization of the  society has gained a new context – it is named as a component of contemporary media literacy (Spurava, 2018). All the  above mentioned also resonates in the  field of education  – the  work on promoting critical thinking has continued among students, in teacher education and professional development. However, has the situation changed substantially? Latvia has joined the  International civic and citizenship education study (ICCS), which assesses comparatively in time and space pupils’ civic knowledge, civic attitudes, their understanding of participation and involvement. The  aim of ICCS is to evaluate the  readiness of the young people in the participating countries to take civic roles that are characteristic to the second decade of the 21st century. This study involves the evaluation of the students’ critical thinking skill. In 2016, the results of the  International civic and citizenship education study showed that the achievement of Latvia’s pupils in the field of civic education were lower than the  European average. It was concluded that the  teaching/learning process, which was implemented in the  field of civic and citizenship education in Latvia was a non-efficient process and this explained the low achievement. The results of the survey carried out in the study showed that teachers in Latvia had a theoretical knowledge about the significance of the critical thinking skill  – 65 % of teachers (ICCS 2016 average is 61%) mentioned in the survey the promotion of critical and independent thinking as one of the most important aims of the civic education. However, the achievement 414 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 of their pupils did not demonstrate a high level of critical thinking. It leads to the conclusion that teachers know what critical thinking is and are aware of its necessity but cannot apply this knowledge in practice for promoting their pupils’ critical thinking (ICCS, 2016). The recent education reforms have given hope to those involved in the  education system that the  improvement of critical thinking in the education of Latvia has obtained a systemic outline. In 2018, the  National Centre for Education of Latvia in the  project “School 2030” worked out and on November 21, the Council of Ministers of the  Republic of Latvia approved the  compulsory teaching/learning content for preschool (preschool guidelines) and on November 27  – for basic education (standard (Regulations of the CoM, Republic of Latvia LR Nr.  716, Regulations of the  CoM, Republic of Latvia Nr. 747, 2018). In 2019, the standard of secondary education has been submitted for approval in the  Council of Ministers of the  Republic of Latvia. Specific learning outcomes for the  development of critical thinking as a  transversal skill have been defined in all the above mentioned documents. At the beginning of 2018, in the framework of “School 2030” the new vision on the education content of Latvia “Education for modern literacy: description of the teaching/learning content and approach” the aim of which is to improve the teaching/learning approach and the content at school as well as to implement substantial changes also in teacher education and professional development has been offered for public discussion. Critical thinking has been named in the  project as one of the  most important transversal skills for the modern learner. Thus, constructing the vision of future education, the  necessity of developing critical thinking again has been emphasized in Latvia. The abovementioned project considers critical thinking along with self-actualization, creativity, cooperation and other skills as the necessary transversal skill that every learner needs, and that has to be present in the  whole teaching/learning process and in all subjects taught in school (School, 2030). It can be concluded that, regarding critical thinking, the  project “School 2030” has taken into consideration the conclusions drawn in 2008 in the  study “On the  use of the  critical thinking development approach in educational system: its impact and effectiveness in Latvia”. First of all, the  project envisages systematic changes in the  school curriculum, and they are based on the  general goal of having a  learner who has mastered the  necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes of the 21st century throughout the process of general education. Secondly, by implementing a  critical thinking approach in all the curriculum as a transversal skill rather than by developing it in separate 415Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... school subjects, the  fragmentation in the development of critical thinking will theoretically be eliminated. Thirdly, the  novelty of the  project for Latvia is that teachers are not equipped with certain methods and techniques – they have received the  goals of the  activities which are critical thinking learners. Finding the most appropriate means for achieving this goal is the task of the teachers themselves. Moreover, by independently looking for solutions to achieve educational goals, teachers will also develop their critical reasoning. Fourth, with the  support of the  European Structural Funds and the Ministry of Education and Science, a conceptual reform of teacher education has been launched in Latvia. It aims to create study programs that train teachers with skills and knowledge necessary for the new school curricula envisaged by the  project “School 2030”. Thus, the  efficiency of teachers’ activity is expected to increase (Rubene, Svece, 2018). The project “School 2030” offers a new model for the curriculum, but its success will depend on teachers’ readiness to be actively involved in its implementation (an important indicator of democratic education). Of course, the issue of the insufficient readiness of teachers in Latvia to implement the new curriculum has not gone away. First, not all teachers are ready to step out of their comfort zone, they want clear criteria for evaluation and clearly defined amount of knowledge that goes with that. The  project “School 2030” gives much larger freedom to teachers and schools to create their own content and choose teaching methods that correspond to it, but that means also a  greater responsibility and larger amounts of creative energy that has to be invested in the teaching process. For many it is a  stressful position, and they look for clear and specific instructions for what to do in the classroom. Secondly, although the reform involves a complete review of the way teachers are trained on the university level and the development of new teacher training programs, this process is not directly supervised by the  project “School 2030”. That means there is a  danger that in some areas there could appear a  gap between the  intentions of reformers and realities of teacher readiness for the new educational framework, including critical thinking as a  transversal skill. One should also mention occasions of negative reactions to the reform in general public. For example, in the context of discussions on the social role of the  child in the  family and at school, people sometime express concern about the  danger of the  development of critical thinking to the value system of children as it allegedly reduces obedience and respect for adults. Also, the attitude of Latvian politicians towards this project is not unambiguous either. On the whole, it should be concluded that it is necessary to continue discussions about promoting the  development of critical thinking in 416 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the general education system of Latvia to minimalize the stated shortcomings and deficiencies and to improve the implementation of the critical thinking approach. Critical thinking in higher education In order to describe the place of critical thinking in higher education, we have to return to the  three meanings how this term is being used  – as the  ideal of thinking (independent, reasoned, evaluating thinking), as the  method of teaching (the lecturer trains the  student’s ability to judge about specific questions without teaching critical thinking as a subject) and as an academic course (the aim is to teach particular techniques of text analysis and text construction in the broadest meaning of the word “text”) (Rubene, Svece, 2018). Critical thinking as an ideal has been present in higher education since its beginnings although the  understanding of what this ideal means and how it should be manifested in the study process has changed with time. Nowadays there are at least two main reasons why critical thinking is considered important  – 1) higher education nowadays is required to ensure a link with the research, and research presupposes the skill to think independently and seek new solutions instead of repeating the  acquired knowledge, 2) higher education still has not lost its social function, its task is to train people who are able to solve different problems not only the ones that have been mastered in the university study process but also new, situational, connected with different spheres of life and employment. University teachers admit that their aim is not to transfer information but to help students to become independently thinking persons and researchers (Paul et al,1997). The fact that critical thinking ideal is highly valued in higher education does not mean that the aims of the study process are always attained and consequently we should ask how critical thinking as a  teaching/learning methodology or critical thinking as a study course can help to reach these aims. It is not that a person who does not know the methodology of critical thinking cannot teach students independent thinking or that a  student who has not had a  critical thinking course is unable to think critically. Independent, critical and reasoned thinking is a general feature of human thinking and we can use it, in a way, intuitively. However, there is no doubt that our rationality is limited and intuition is not always effective enough. Although the  presence of critical thinking has been marked since 2008 both on the European and national levels in the Qualifications Framework for higher education (EQF, 2018), the understanding of the critical thinking methodology among the  academic staff of higher education institutions in 417Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... Latvia, certainly, is not sufficient. Accordingly, one cannot claim it is used systematically in the study process. It means that the study process in higher education would certainly benefit if the skills to apply this methodology were trained and the academic staff had a clear notion what they were and how to use them in the teaching of particular areas of studies. The question is how to achieve it. It is hardly possible that the desired way would be compulsory requirements. It has to be taken into account that both learning of meth- odology and its introduction into the delivery of a concrete course requires enormous time and other resources. First of all, a  convincing offer should be ensured – courses in the  form of modules that the academic staff could master and in which there is clearly formulated benefit from such courses. Critical thinking as a  methodology has no limits; it could be applied to any branch of science and approbated for the particular needs. Critical thinking as a course that is offered to students and academic staff in several higher education institutions of Latvia, in a way, has a narrower application (Kincheloe, 2000). Although in principle it is possible to design a course, say, about, critical analysis of research texts in chemistry, such a  course in the  end would overlap with the  methodology issues of the  particular science in question. Another point is that also the methodology of science can be analysed on different levels and students would definitely need to acquire the  most general level which analyses the  general assumptions of the  science. Critical analysis of science on this level basically becomes the philosophy of science. Critical thinking as a course functions the most effectively as a general analysis of thoughts, statements and texts and corresponds to those skills that are necessary for any person who writes something, participates in a  discussion and thinks about what the  others have said. As a  course critical thinking has developed historically as the analysis of argumentation and combines the elements of informal logic and rhetoric. Such courses are very rare in the higher education institutions of Latvia. Most likely, there are different reasons for that, one of them – such courses are dedicated to general competences, and do not focus on issues of one particular science that the university programme is meant to teach. This, certainly, belongs more to the  domain of humanities and social sciences although science communication is one of the most important parts of the researcher’s work today, and that makes critical thinking a  subject essential also for them. Still, as it was said before, the course is almost never included in the study programmes either in the social sciences or natural sciences. The presence of such courses in the  university programmes would be recommended, yet it has to be taken into account that understanding about what critical thinking course should be also has to be reconsidered. When in 1970ies, critical thinking courses appeared in the USA they were focused 418 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 on the analysis of argumentation (Rubene, 2008). However, argumentation is not the  only thing that is important for people’s discussions and texts. Taking into consideration discussions about the perception of information in different media and ways of manipulating with the message, critical thinking should more incorporate themes related to rhetoric and media literacy. Finally, the attention should be paid to the fact that at present one can notice conflicting and almost contradictory conceptions of what are the aims of higher education. The aim to link higher education to scientific research can get into a conflict with general educational aims of higher education; at the same time, focusing on research and the development of the person’s general capacity to reason as the aims of higher education can contradict the society’s demand for practicality and applicability in higher education. This conflict is not absolute and often is rooted in misunderstandings; yet critical thinking as a method and as a course can help to connect these aims although it means also careful evaluation of aims and practices of critical thinking. Conclusions: recommendations for improving the development of critical thinking in the education of Latvia In order to analyse the situation in the development of critical thinking in education in Latvia, an experts’ discussion was organized on August 22, 2018 in the House of European Union in Latvia “Development of critical thinking in education in Latvia”. Education experts, academics, school heads and teachers as well as representatives of European Commission Agency in Latvia participated in the discussion. The discussion resulted in formulating recommendations for improving the  development of critical thinking in education in Latvia. On the state level: • It is necessary to carry out a  representative research about critical thinking skills in the  society and the  society’s attitude towards critical thinking and its concrete aspects. The research should mark a  broader social, cultural and value context that critical thinking has in Latvia, including the  evaluation of out-of-school/university factors that influence the work and attitude of school and university teachers to critical thinking. It would be interesting to learn the level of critical thinking of “opinion leaders”, e.g., politicians. • Critical thinking has to be developed not only to avoid manipulations in media but also to decrease the possibility of violence, thus it is also a question of safety. At present, critical thinking is often focused on independent evaluation of information, exploration of fake news, 419Zanda Rubene, Artis Svece. Development of Critical Thinking in Education of Latvia ... winning debates but more has to be done to work out methodology for schools and higher education that would allow to develop the  culture of evolving a  shared opinion, communication, making a common decision and discussions. • To expand information campaigns about the necessity and importance of critical thinking in the society, emphasizing the content of critical thinking and its nuances, not the  critical thinking phenomenon as such. The  popularization of critical thinking should include the  explanatory aspect, stressing critical thinking not only as a technical skill but also as an essential element in self-formation of a person and society, the connection of critical thinking with human and democratic values, as well as emphasizing critical thinking and reasoned discussion as a  means of finding shared opinion, not as the practice of quarrelling and its legitimization. In the education system: • Clear criteria should be worked out for assessing the  quality and development of critical thinking in the education system. Based on these criteria, it is necessary to perform a  representative research about the situation regarding critical thinking in schools and higher education institutions in Latvia in order to formulate the necessary improvement mechanisms. • A complex analysis of competence-based teaching/learning process is necessary for evaluating how concrete critical thinking skills are worked into and used in the  teaching/learning process, especially paying attention to the  contribution of different school subjects to the development of critical thinking competence, in order to avoid the  situation that the  teachers of subjects work on transferring knowledge relevant for their subject assuming that other teachers take care of critical thinking. • Analysing the  benefits and drawbacks from using different critical thinking strategies in the  teaching/learning process, also comparing the direct and indirect approach in the development of critical think- ing, to elaborate recommendations for teachers of different subject. • To work out recommendations on how to ensure cooperation among teachers and/or university academic staff that considerably improves the possibilities to work critical thinking principles and methods into the teaching/learning process. • To develop the  understanding about the  importance of group and project works in schools and higher education institutions. Cooperation as one of the  key words that should help teachers to expand simultaneously the  presence of critical thinking in school curriculum and teaching process. 420 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 • It is necessary to develop purposefully the transversal skills in teacher education: critical thinking, logic, presentation skills, academic reading and writing, media literacy, civic education and ethics. • To find a  possibility in further education of teachers to organize courses on improving critical argumentation skills which will bridge the  gap between teacher’s knowledge about critical thinking and their own skills in this field. • To allow children the possibilities of choice already at the preschool level thus developing their decision making ability and the ability to explain and justify their standpoint. • To develop methods and recommendations about cultivating and popularizing critical thinking in the out-of-school organized learning process, paying special attention to the possibilities given by student research work at school, etc. References Baltic Institute of Social Sciences (2008) Kritiskās domāšanas attīstīšanas pieejas izmantošana izglītības sistēmā – ietekme un efektivitāte Latvijā. 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Izglītība. Spriestspēja. Rīga, LU FSI, 13.–23. lpp. Schwab, K. (2016) The Fourth Industrial Revolution. – Cologny: World Economic Forum. Skola 2030. (2018) [ School 2030]. https://www.skola2030.lv/. Spurava, G. (2018). Medijpratība un kritiskā domāšana. Mūsdienu aktualitātes. [Media Literacy and Critical Thinking. Current Situation.] Kūle, M. (red.) Kritiskā domāšana. Izglītība. Spriestspēja. Rīga, LU FSI, 25.–31. lpp. 422 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE CONCEPT OF POWER IN TEACHER TALK IN CONTEXTUALITY OF TEACHER’S AUTHORITY Kristine Jozauska University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Education has been accepted as one major agency of socialization, and teachers and educational institutions as socializing agents. Teachers are looked upon as the  individuals who can help to bring about positive changes in the lives of people. The role of the teacher has changed. Teachers do not see themselves as powerful. Imagining teachers as the most powerful creatures in the  class seems plausible, but how is power relation represented in teacher’s discourse? The  way teachers see themselves as professionals and how they compose their identities in schools is important factor in teacher authority discourse. The problem of the social status of the teacher cannot be solved instrumentally by increasing the disciplinary power of teachers, but must be addressed as a more foundational problem concerning the  basis of authority in a  pluralistic society. The  discussion on how power is activated, practiced and accomplished within and across children’s everyday interactions with adults, is in great significance. Language plays an important role in authority constructions. Teachers’ ability to control their use of language is considered to be as important as their ability to select appropriate methodologies. Keywords: teacher talk, power, teacher authority. Introduction The world we leave to our children depends in large measure on the children we leave to our world. The world’s hopes for the  future rest with today’s young people and their readiness to take up the  challenges of the  coming century. Education is seen as major vector in society. On the  threshold of the  twenty-first century, the  education of the  young has never been more in need of our commitment and resources. Our teachers have never been more crucial to our collective future. The young generation is entering a world which is changing in all sphere. As an institution, the  education system plays a  key role in transmitting dominant ideologies of society (Clark, 2005). One of the ways it does this is through the  reproduction and maintenance of a  standard variety of a language through which, in turn, notions of national and cultural identity https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.29 Kristine Jozauska The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality ... 423Kristine Jozauska. The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality ... are transmitted. The  purpose of education is to initiate the  young into the different ways in which, over the centuries, men have organized their experience and understanding of the world and to lead the  individual to empowerment and social- emotional development. The person who offers the guidance, judgment and knowledge is the teacher. Research problem Education has been accepted as one major agency of socialization, and teachers and educational institutions as socializing agents (Patil, 2012). Teachers are looked upon as the individuals who can help to bring about positive changes in the  lives of people. They are seen as natural leaders who can give advice on various affairs in the community. William H. Kitchen (2014) gives a  view of education as a  process that liberayes through the  guidance and leadership of authority. In this version of knowledge-driven education, the teacher’s authority should be absolute, so as to ensure that the teacher has the scope to liberate his students. The success of being educated depends upon the  ability of teacher to explain and inspire, and on the  willingness of the  young to engage. The  discussion on the  role of authority in knowledge development and the subject of lack of teacher’s authority is in great tension. Teachers do not see themselves as powerful. The  discussion on teachers’ loss of authority is today taking on a  totally new dimension. The  role of the  teacher has changed. From the former “man of repute” the teacher has become a service provider mistreated both by the media and by his students. Figure 1. Teacher authority in fields The issue of authority in education has been explored in some depth by various scholars. The problem of the social status of the teacher cannot be 424 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 solved instrumentally by increasing the disciplinary power of teachers, but must be addressed as a  more foundational problem concerning the  basis of authority in a pluralistic society (Dahlbeck, Lilja, 2016). It is important to have a view of knowledge transmission and teacher-student relations in the  fast-changing world in which we live. The  phenomenom of teacher’s authority is intricated (see Figure 1) to the social and school fields, and it is its complexity (Cortizo, et al 2015). Figure 1 shows the  school field inserted in the  social field, suffering direct interference from economic, political, cultural and social in a diachronic and synchronic way. However, the  specifics of school field distinguish it from other fields, because it is governed by communicational logic, that is given in a  process where different people play different roles. Schools are complex spaces of social interaction for excellence. They are spaces of relation and communication. The  relational and communicational features of this space, whose protagonists should share languages, affections and experiences in their daily life (Ferreira in Cortizo, et al 2015). Teachers as the most powerful creatures in the class seems plausible, but how is power relation represented in teacher’s discourse? It calls on a necessity to investigate how this power is linguistically expressed by teachers and presented in the  classroom. The  discussion on how power is activated, practiced and accomplished within and across children’s everyday interactions with adults, is in great significance. Richmond and McCroskey (Richmond and Mc Croskey in Richmond, 2009) reviewed different studies on and came to the conclusion that these studies are based on the premise that: a) the role of a teacher, almost by definition, involves a social influence; b) the use of power is built into the job of a teacher; c) a teacher must have considerable amount of power to create the environment conducive to learning; d) for teacher power to exist, it must be granted by the students. Teachers’ knowledge and institutional status shift from the symbolic level to the social level of power and dominance mainly through the medium of discourse. An analysis of the teacher’s discourse may reveal the details of the daily constitutive practices of power and authority (Wenren, 2014). For Bernstein, the  pedagogic discourse embeds the  discourse of specialized competencies to be acquired, that is, what learners are to learn, in the discourse which creates and regulates social order. Pedagogic discourse specifically frames classroom discourse within a context of both power relations and moral values by revealing how the  instructional discourse is embedded in the regulative discourse (Clark, 2005). This paper reviews ideas of concept of power in teacher talk in contextuality of teacher’s authority. It’s a part of an ongoing PhD research, 425Kristine Jozauska. The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality ... literature review was used as method assisting understanding and interpreting the context of studied subjects. Contextuality of the phenomenon of authority The scientific literature indicates the need to pay attention to different aspects changing educational field and culture in building the contextuality of the phenomenon of authority. Figure 2. Contextuality of the Phenomenon of Authority In the process of conceptualization the phenomen of authority it has come clear that there are some important aspects making context in which authority of the teacher forms (see Figure 2 author’s concept): a) Crisis of concept of authority. Concern with authority is as old as human history itself. The modern world attempted to develop new foundations for authority  – democratic consent, public opinion, science  – Furedi (2013) shows that this problem has remained unresolved, arguing that today the  authority of authority is questioned. The discussion is important: How do you have order in a world where people have different interests, and where religion can no longer provide a narrative or consensus? How do you get people to cooperate and to abide by a  certain set of shared assumptions? The  problem of order, of what morally grounds society, used to be the  main subject many political thinkers dealt with. But now, as Furendi (2013) argues, the problem of order has been redefined in a more narrow technical sense, as a problem of social cohesion, for instance, or as a problem of trust. The break with tradition and the  past as a  source of authority  – this seems to be a  key turning 426 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 point in the  conception of authority. From the  “man of repute” a  person above suspicion and beyond criticism, the  teacher has become a service provider mistreated both by the media and by his students. b) Social change. Social change takes place as a response to many types of changes that take place in the social and non-social environment. Education are all built on the  assumption that learning is closely linked to personal and social change (Bourn, 2015). Education can initiate social changes by bringing about a  change in outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a change in the pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes. According to Patil (2012) in describing education as an instrument of social change, three things are important: the agents of change, the content of change, and the social background of those who are sought to be changed, i.e. students. Education can be used as a tool to empower the individual. Therefore, teacher’s role as agents of social change is in great tension. Teachers are looked upon as the individuals who can help to bring about positive changes in the  lives of people. Within these discourses and practices, the  role of the  teacher as the agent for promoting these changes is often assumed but rarely discussed as to what it means. The question is: what kind of adult authority is appropriate for free and pluralistic society? c) Power relation change. Authority concept has close relation with the  concept of power and influence. Authority means legitimate power. Power can be defined in variety of ways. Michel Foucault (2001) has been hugely influential in shaping understandings of power, leading away from the  analysis of actors who use power as an instrument of coercion, and even away from the  discreet structures in which those actors operate, toward the idea that ‘power is everywhere’, diffused and embodied in discourse, knowledge and “regimes of truth”. Foucault (2001) is one of the  few writers on power who recognise that power is not just a negative, coercive or repressive thing that forces us to do things against our wishes, but can also be a necessary, productive and positive force in society. Power is also a major source of social discipline and conformity. Power is the possession of authority, control, or influence by which a person influences the actions of others. One of the acknowledgments in new paradigm in describing childhood and adult-child relationships, is that children are active agents who are not simply shaped by the world around them but actively shape and change that world. Relationships between adults and children generate fields of negotiation and renegotiation where norms and expectations are actively challenged 427Kristine Jozauska. The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality ... and modified. Children adopt a  host of multiple strategies in their dealing with adults, at times complying with or resisting adult control over their daily lives. Children interact with adults to produce negotiated outcomes. They make sense of and interpret their everyday interactions with adults. Within these interactions with more powerful actors, children strive to achieve elements of social control over their daily environment, power to make and shape decisions about their everyday lives. This focuses on necessitaty to revisit structured power relationships between adults and children (Leonard, 2015). The discussion on how power is activated, practised and accomplished within and across children’s everyday interactions with adults, is in great significance. There are many important aspects in analyzing power relations among students- treachers, for example how power is exercised and resisted in various aspects of an academic situation in pedagogy. Parents and teacher now know that they have no control over the child; they only can control themselves and the  resources at their disposal. Their authority manifests itself when they conscientiously use the means at their disposal, so as to best fulfill their responsibility (Omer, 2011). In promoting the new authority, we no longer focus on the reactions of the child, but rather on the actions of the adult. Cooperation has become a choice. d) Teacher professional identity. Classroom is a  preliminary stage for educational activities and it is a  position for preparing people for living in a  changing world. Classroom is a  place that some direct services are provided for students so that they develop individually and socially and the  requirement for healthy and holistic society development can be provided. Instruction or class management is a  part of education and is referred as a  part of educational activities that takes place with presence of the teacher in classroom. Therefore class management can be considered as an important indicator in teachers’ task is a  complicated take that is referred as an “art” (Esmaeili, et al 2015). The  role of the  teacher and its management style is highly important and essential for succeeding in educational objectives of students in proportion of today world. The  way teachers see themselves as professionals and how they compose their identities in schools is important factor in teacher authority discourse. Challenges of modern society including school requires changes in conceptual approach of pedagogical sciences for interpretation of modern social phenomena. Situational and social challenges, in and out of the classroom, in the educational landscape that is located in a township or urban community, shape the identity of our teachers. Teaching has become so difficult, simply because of 428 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the circumstances teachers face, which are way out of their control (Smit & Fritz, 2008). Authority is one of the  core constituents of the  professional identity of the  teacher and an essential guarantee of effective classroom management and instruction (Wenren, 2014). Why authority is needed- Dewey’s ideas Authority involves power, to produce and to regulate a certain kind of behaviour. Authority is connected with the rule-governed form of social life. The importance of moral education and teachers’ moral authority has long remained the  central feature of any education. Schools has responsibility for children’s moral and intellectual development. Teaching itself involves moral action, classroom interaction is fundamentally moral in nature. Dewey’s (1987) ideas on authority reveals that authority stands for stability of social organization by means of which direction and support are given to individuals; while individual freedom stands for the forces by which change is intentionally brought about. The  issue that requires constant attention is the intimate and organic union of two things: of authority and freedom, of stability and change. Dewey therefore believed that there is an intimate connection between the principle of freedom and the principle of authority. In a healthy society, he believed that individuals were in need of authority as much as they were in need of freedom. In this regard, the real problem is not to separate but rather to find out the  proper relationship between them so that better understanding and action can come about in experience. Dewey placed authority in the method of organized intelligence as exemplified in the area of science. By elevating scientific intelligence to the status of authority, he viewed authority to be intellectual, not dogmatic as earlier centuries sought (Kim, 2013). Intelligence is the power to think of available information and acquired knowledge with deliberate reflection and to relate them to current issues in experience. It is also the  ability to frame worthwhile aims and organize a means to carefully execute and realize them. The business of a teacher, Dewey argues, is to help students to develop such intelligence and continually increase in that power. According to Dewey (1987), effective educational authority is to be exercised in a social context, where individuals, including the teacher, are involved and contribute to and participate in its common activities and understandings. In this way, Dewey insists that the  principle of social control does not necessarily restrict the  principle of personal freedom. Moreover, under such a  condition, where the  un- coerced consensus of social control prevails, he maintains that individuals in the  classroom community, especially children, do not feel that they are submitting to external imposition even if they are called to order. 429Kristine Jozauska. The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality ... Language role in authority construction There are many aspects of skilled professional practice that can be made explicit and which can help teachers to work more effectively, with even the most challenging young people. Teacher talk is a  powerful classroom tool to convey and construct meaning, to clarify understanding how teacher experience and talk in pedagogical situations. Teachers’ ability to control their use of language is considered to be as important as their ability to select appropriate methodologies (Walsh, 2002). In any interpersonal context, control over the  use of physical and visual space communicates powerful messages about status and authority. Teachers’ non-verbal behaviour will be a  means of demonstrating their confidence and sense of professional authority (Reynolds, 2014). What becomes the  content of a  school subject is not something unique or logical, but is defined by what those who regulate and control the  curriculum believe to be the  most useful and desirable to benefit society. Language is used to construct power relations. People may build power relations by establishing social categories. Teachers’ words and the way they use them create meaning for students as well as themselves. Words acquire meaning only in human interaction in particular contexts and situations (Maftoon, Shakouri, 2012). From a Marxist point of view, as reported by Wodak (2001), language is not powerful on its own— it gains power by the use, powerful people make of it. Along the same vein, Jones (2007) says, “words don’t produce or interpret themselves; people, engaged over some matter, are responsible for that”. Language is not a  word we may use to refer to the  creative communicative endeavours of particular individuals, but the  term for an abstract, self-contained system of forms, meanings, and rules whose existence is the precondition for successful acts of linguistic communication, any such act being the  mere realization or expression of elements or rules in the system (Jones, 2007). As Jones (2007) points out, to engage communicatively with someone is a  form of conduct towards them, a  way of treating them, and is, therefore, as is any form of human behaviour, an irreducibly moral act in the  broad sense of the  word, whether this is to do with the  personal morality of rights and responsibilities. A  successful educator in the  field of teaching should be aware of the  power of words and its impact on the  audience and avoid using words habitually without thinking. Also, ordering is one of the conflicts which leads to failure in human interaction. The  teacher should express his opinion with proper words and within the defined framework for his comments to be effective and penetrating. Therefore, the teacher, as the sender of the message, should first determine 430 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  framework of his message and then express his expectations of the students frankly with appropriate tone and words (Gholipour, 2007). In the selection of words, the intended concept must be exactly in the words of the  educator. It is appropriate to use clear, concise, accurate, polite, correct and rich expression in oral communication with the  audience to transmit the  speaker’s intentions to the  audience proper (Najafi, Rahmanzade, 2013). In a democratic education the concept of power is shared. In this realm of philosophy, it is suggested that teachers should avoid displays of power to command in their classes so as to reduce the  gap between them and students, which will surely help students to be more active in participating activities in class (Yanfen, Yuqin, 2010). According to literature review, I have found some subjects to be indicators in analysing power relations which can be implemented in making observation protocol for the part for ongoing PhD research. Those indicators are: a) Social cognitive aspect: through the analysis of the topics that people talk about, concludes that they represent the things that exist in their minds. Managing the mind of others is essentially a function of text and talk. Considering Van Dijk (1993) power is mostly cognitive, and enacted by persuasion, dissimulation or manipulation, among other strategic ways to change the mind of others in one’s own interests. Walsh (2002) examined the  ways in which teachers construct or obstruct learner participation in classroom interaction, through their choice of language. By construction he meant “increasing learning potential” which he claimed can be done through activities like, direct error correction, content feedback, checking for confirmation, extended wait time and scaffolding. Obstruction was defined by him as “reducing learning potential” which according to him, can be done through turn completion, teacher echo, teacher interruptions. b) The class arrangements as signs of power (Benesch, 1999). Conceptual framework for questions about authority and control such as: what are students permitted to do in a  particular setting? How do they respond to rules and regulations? How are decisions about control and resistance made? What is the way teachers present themselves and way instruction is carried out. c) Body as a site of control (Fuko, 2001). The ways institutions regulate the body. The key feature of disciplinary power is that it is exercised directly on the body. According to Fuko (Foucault) power can also be said to create knowledge in the sense that institutions of power determine the conditions under which scientific statements come to be counted as true or false. 431Kristine Jozauska. The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk in Contextuality ... d) Teachers as moral agents (Bergem, 1990; Johnston, et al1998). How moral values are played out in the  classroom, moral dilemma and decision making. Moral dimensions of teaching. Moral sensibility means gaining a deeper understanding of interactions in classroom. e) Nonverbal behaviour. Nonverbal expressiveness is understood as the demonstration of behaviours that communicate energy, passion, and interest in teaching. The  effective use of expressive nonverbal behaviours can positively influence a  students’ relationship with their teacher and their interest in the  subject matter (Reynolds, 2014). Teacher intensity, enthusiasm, and perceived warmth are teacher personality attributes associated with effective teaching (Erbes, 1983). Teacher warmth, like enthusiasm, is conveyed through nonverbal means in the classroom and has been positively associated with student learning (Voelkl, 1995). Teachers who create a warm and inviting classroom provide an atmosphere conducive to learning (Stronge, et al 2007). Conclusions Teacher quality and authority are most important factors influencing learner outcomes. The traditional differential categorizations of “knowledge”, the  “teacher” and the  “learner”, as well as traditional ways of learning are challenged. This challenge obliges teachers to reflect on where their authority comes from, what kind of professional identity they wish to take, and what kind of relationship they wish to build with students (Wenren, 2014). Language is used to construct power relations. Teachers use to explain, justify and make sense of themselves in relation to the  students, and of education at large. Through the evaluation of their discursive choices and modes of presentation, the  positioning of teachers can be seen to impact the most essential parts of the teaching process (Wenren, 2014). The strong and weak forms of authority can be illustrated through the  importance that teachers ascribe to the  claim of their desired identities. The  strong form, framed through a high degree of certainty and discursive force about the  teachers’ high status and social position, reveals their insistence on the traditional role. As Wenren (2014) concludes, the strong form stresses knowledge, order, correctness, unitary proposition, timing, evaluation, etc. A  strong form of authority is more consistent with the  enduring power characteristics of institutional discourse and more resistant to the dynamics of local interaction. Knowledge is presented as absolute, hierarchical and decontextualized. A  weak form of authority is characterized by low or middle modality verbs, low graduation, and an absence of extreme 432 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 expressions. Teachers may refer to friends and partnerships, but they are cited to relate with students or to tone down the teachers’ importance. As with many other aspects of teaching, the  effort to understand the  tensions of authority is important in itself. Authority is a  constant in teaching; the  authority of the  teacher, and the  relations of power and morality that underlie it, should then be a source of continual reflection. References Benesch, S. (1999). Rights analysis: Studying power relations in an academic setting. English for Specific Purposes, 8(4). 313–327. Bergem, T. (1990). The teacher as moral agent. Journal of Moral Education, 19. 88–100. Bourn, D. (2015). Teachers as agents of social change. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 7 (3), 63–77. Clark, U. (2005). Bernsten’s theory of pedagogic discourse: Linguistics, educational policy and practice in the UK English/literacy classroom. English Teachinh: Practice and Critique, 4 (3), 32–47. 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. Erbes, R. L. (1983). Certification practices and trends in music teacher education, 1982–1983. Music Educators National Conference. Retrieved from: www.nafme.org. Esmaeili, Z., Mohamadrezai,H. & Mohamadrezai, A. (2015). The  role of teacher’s authority in students’ learning. Journal of Education and Practice, 6 (19), 1–15. Fuko, M. (2001) Uzraudzīt un sodīt. (Discipline and Punish) Omnia Mea, Rīga. Furedi, F. (2013) Authority: A Sociological History. Cambridge University Press. Gholipour A. (2007). Pathology of teacher-student relationship from the perspective of teachers and secondary students in the city of Parsabad. Persian. Johnston, B., Juhasz, A., Marken, J., & Ruiz, B. R. (1998). The ESL teacher as moral agent. Research in the Teaching of English, 32. 161–181. Jones, P.E. (2007). Why there is no such thing as “critical discourse analysis”. Language & Communication, 27 (4), 337–368. Kim, S.H. (2013). The Problem of Authority: What Can Korean Education Learn From Dewey? 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(2009). Communication in the  classroom: Power and motivation. Journal Comminication Education, 39 (3), 181–195. Smit, B., Fritz, E. (2008). Understanding teacher identity from a symbolic interactionist perspective: two ethnographic narratives. South African Journal of Education, 28, 91–101. Stronge, J. H., Ward, T. J., Tucker, P. D., & Hindman, J. I. (2007). What is the relationship between teacher quality and student achievement? Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 20, 165–184. Van Dijk, T. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse and Society, 4. 249–283. Voelkl, K. E. (1995). School warmth, student participation, and achievement. Journal of Experimental Education, 63 (2), 127–138. Walsh, S. (2002). Construction or obstruction: teacher talk and learner involvement in the EFL classroom. Language Teaching Research, 6 (1), 3–23. Warren, L.L. (2016). Viewing teachers as leaders without being administrators. Education, 136 (4), 508–514. Wenren, X. (2014). The Construction of the Teacher’s Authority in Pedagogic Discourse. English Language Teaching, 7(6), 96–108. Wodak, R. (2001a). What CDA is about–a summary of its history, important concepts and its development. In R.. Wodak & M. Meyers (Eds.) Methods of CDA (pp: 1–13). London: Sage Publication. Yanfen, L. and Z. Yuqin, 2010. The  study of teacher talk in interactions in English classes. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33 (2), 76–8 Yuan, X. (2012). How to Deal with Student Misbehavior in the Classroom? Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 2 (1), 144–150. 434 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ATTITUDE AND VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AS PREDICTORS OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN FRENCH READING COMPREHENSION IN SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS Araromi Maxwell Olakunle University of Ibadan, Nigeria ABSTRACT This paper examined the relationship between reading attitudes and vocabulary knowledge of some senior secondary school students in Ibadan and their achievement in French reading comprehension. This study was a correlational type. The sample selected comprised 95 Senior Secondary School Students. Three instruments were used for the study. These are French Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (FRCAT), Questionnaire on Students Attitude to French Reading Comprehension (QSAFRC) and Test of Students Knowledge of Vocabularies (TSKV).(FRCAT), (QSAFRC) and (TSKV) had reliability indices of 0.82, 0.81 and 0.82 respectively. Data collected for the study were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Multiple Regression. Four research questions were raised and answered. Findings revealed that there was a  significant positive relationship between the dependent variable (achievement in reading comprehension) and independent variables (Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge). Attitude to reading comprehension (r  =  .471, N = 95, p < .05) and vocabulary knowledge (r = .356, N  = 95, p < .05). Findings revealed that there was a  joint contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension. This means that 20.7% (Adj. R2 = 0.207) of the variance in the students’ achievement in reading comprehension is accounted for by the independent variables, when taken together. Findings reveal that there is a  significant relative contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension, expressed as beta weights. Attitude to reading comprehension (β = 0.538, t = 3.390, p < 0.05) indicates most potent contributor to the prediction, followed by Vocabulary knowledge (β = 0.183, t = 2.522, p < 0.05). It was however recommended that teachers of French language as a foreign language in Nigeria should pay adequate attention to the variables of attitude to reading and vocabulary knowledge as these could hamper the adequate learning outcomes in French reading comprehension among learners Keywords: Attitudes to Reading, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Knowledge, French Language. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.30 Araromi Maxwell Olakunle Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors ... 435Araromi Maxwell Olakunle. Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors ... Introduction The French language is recognized as the second official language in Nigeria. Nigeria was colonized by Great Britain and obtained her political independence in 1960. English language was adopted as the official language to foster unity among diverse ethnic nationalities and ethnic groups English, according to National Policy on Education is described as language of administration, commence, international relation and diplomacy. French language which is the second official language in Nigeria is a language of international communication with the francophone neighboring countries in West Africa who are former colonies of France and also use French language as their official language of communication. Competence in the basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing in a foreign language such as French language is expedient in order to foster bilateral relation with these French speaking countries and Metropolitan France who is one of the prominent trading partners with Nigeria. Reading skill in French language is very important because it enables someone to be able to read and comprehend vital and sensitive documents written in French language. Reading is one of the four basic language skills. It is required for academic achievement and success. It could be categorized as literacy skill which is essential for individual survival in life. Reading cannot only be confined to academic circle but also useful in acquisition of knowledge, ideas, information for healthy living and survival. The  significance of reading for the attainment of academic achievement of students at levels of education cannot be over – emphasized. The  primary aim of reading is comprehension. This is confirmed by Fakeye, (2017) who states that the good proof of reading is the extent to which the reader is able to comprehend what the reader has read, which is measured as the ability to make meaning out of a written text. Reading comprehension implies that readers are able to construct meaning from a  written text. Carnine and Carnine (2010) clarifies the meaning of constructing meaning from the text which implies that the readers go beyond the meaning explicitly contained in the text, building up based on their own experience and ability to infer additional or deeper meaning. Vocabulary knowledge on the other hand has significant effect on the reading comprehension in any language. This has been the focus of researchers in the field of foreign language and second language. Vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are interrelated and interdependent. Comprehension of written text depends heavily on the knowledge of vocabulary items and reading can also help enhance vocabulary growth (Maher Salah, 2008, Nation, 2001). Vocabulary knowledge plays critical role as the linguistic framework of the language among many other domains 436 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 of language such as grammar and phonology. Knowledge of vocabulary helps both in the acquisition of productive and receptive skills of language. Knowledge of words is a  determining factor in language proficiency and success in academic pursuit because of its close affinity with comprehension of text (Bernhardt, 2005, Wang, 2009). Snow (2002) found the strength of relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension and concluded that this strength of relationship increases as children advance in grade level. In the study conducted by Gelderen (2004) on the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension among students from Grade 8 to Grade 10, It was found that there is a significant relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. The findings of Tannenbaum, Torgesen and Wagner (2006) and Shiotsu and Weir (2007) attested to the fact there is relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. Mehrpour et al (2011) conducted a  study on the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension on EFL learner, the result of the analysis revealed that both depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge play an important role in EFL leaners’ reading comprehension performance, depth of vocabulary knowledge makes a more important contribution. The study further confirmed a positive correlation between the depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge signifying that the learners with large vocabulary size understand the words better. Attitude to reading is another variable of consideration in this study. Lawal (2008) affirmed that students at the secondary schools are not only deficient in reading skills but have also not cultivated the habits of reading widely. This could be termed to mean that there is absence of reading culture among the secondary school students who are the target population of this study. The  failure rate recorded in external examination such Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE) conducted by West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and National Examinations Council (NECO) especially in language related subjects such Literature-in-English, French and English language is allusion to the fact that attitude to reading among the secondary students is negative. Research questions The study provided answers to the following research questions 1. What is the relationship between Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge and students achievement in reading comprehension 2. What is the joint contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension? 437Araromi Maxwell Olakunle. Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors ... 3. What is the relative contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension in French language 4. Which of the two factors would predict students’ achievement in reading comprehension in French language? Statement of the Problem Reading is very important to language learning especially foreign language learning. The  adoption of French as a  second official language in Nigeria has made it imperative for learners to acquire appropriate skill in reading comprehension so as to be able to attain literacy in the language. Various research findings such as Tannenbaum, Torgenson and Wagner, (2006) and Shiotu and Weir (2007) and Lawal (2008) have reported consistent decline in the performance of learners of French language in reading comprehension. Major research efforts geared towards resolving this problem of poor performance in reading comprehension focused attention on strategies and methods of teaching reading and student and teacher related factors as determinants of their achievement in reading comprehension in French language but little attention was focused on attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge as determinants of students achievement in reading comprehension. Therefore, this study investigated attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge as determinants of students’ achievement in reading comprehension. Method of Data Analysis The data collected for the study were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Multiple Regression. Methodology The study adopted the survey research design of correlational type. The design is appropriate since the researcher has no direct control on the independent variables as their manifestation already exists. Three instruments were used in the collection of data for the study. These are French Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (FRCAT), Questionnaire on Students Attitude to French Reading Comprehension (QSAFRC) and Test of Students Knowledge of Vocabularies. French Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (FRCAT) was adopted from Nouvel Horizon a comprehensive integrated course for Senior Secondary French by Tunde Ajiboye, Bounty Press, 1999. 438 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The instrument contains a reading comprehension passage followed by ten multiple choice questions to test the understanding of students in French comprehension passage. This instrument was given to experts in the field of French Language to ascertain the face and content validity. It was also trial tested on a sample of Senior Secondary School Students that are not part of the main study. The reliability of the instrument was established through test – re-test method and a value of 0.82 was obtained Questionnaire on Students Attitude to French Reading Comprehension (QSAFRC). The questionnaire was adapted from Osikomoya (2012). It consists of two sections. Section A sought demographic data of the students (name of school, age, class, sex etc.) While section B contained 20 items which sought information on students attitude to reading comprehension in French language. The  questionnaire is of the modified likert type with four scales of: Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The questionnaire will br scored as follows: For positively framed statements: Strongly Agree = 4, Agree= 3, Disagree = 2, Strongly Disagree = 1. The questionnaire was given to given to experts in language experts to determine its suitability for the study. The  corrections from them helped to determine face and content validity. The  reliability of QSAFRC was ascertained by administering it on the SSII students in a school that would not be part of the schools to be used for this study. Cronbach alpha was used to determine the reliability and value of 0.81 was obtained. Test of Students Knowledge of Vocabularies.(TSKV) was self -designed instrument to test the vocabulary knowledge of the students in French language. The  instrument contains twenty French vocabularies extracted from the passage appeared to be difficult based on the initiation of the researcher. To ascertain the reliability of the instrument, it was administered on the another group of SSII students that did not form part of the sampled population. Test- retest reliability formula was used to test the reliability of the instrument and reliability index of 0.82 was obtained. Results This section presents the result of the research carried out on attitude and vocabulary knowledge as predictors of senior secondary school students’ achievement in French reading comprehension in selected secondary schools in Ibadan Metropolis. Three research questions were raised and answered. The  data collected were analyzed using frequency count, percentage, PPMC and Regression Analysis. The  summary of data analysis shall be discussed under the sub-headings; i. Social demographic characteristic data ii. Analysis of research questions. 439Araromi Maxwell Olakunle. Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors ... Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents A total number of 95 Senior Secondary School Students randomly selected from seven Schools in Ibadan Metropolis participated in the study. Seven Senior Secondary Schools that offer French Language as a  subject were purposively selected while the researcher used simple random sampling technique to select 95 Senior Secondary School Students who participated in the study. The researcher sought the consent of the French Teachers in the participating Schools who assisted in administering the instruments on the learners. Table 1. Distribution of School Name of School Frequency Percentage Baptist High School Saki 11 11.6 Baptist Medical Center Secondary School 11 11.6 Livingstone College of Arts and Sciences 10 10.5 Oritamefa Baptist Model School 19 20.0 Faith School and College 10 10.5 Christ The King Catholics College 20 21.1 Sharon Rose School and College 14 14.7 Total Number of Respondents 95 100.0 Table 1.1 implies that majority of the respondents were from Christ the King Catholics College. Analysis of Research Questions RQ1: What relationship exists between the dependent variable (achievement in reading comprehension) and independent variables (Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge)? Table 2. Inter-correlation Matrix of independents and dependent variable Variable Achievement in reading com- prehension Attitude to reading com- prehension Vocabulary knowledge Achievement in reading comprehension 1 Attitude to reading comprehension (P value ) .471** .000 1 vocabulary knowledge (p value) .356** .000 .816** .000 1 Mean 27.72 26.57 27.52 Std. Deviation 4.15 4.99 4.94 440 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 2 showed that: there was a  significant positive relationship between the dependent variable (achievement in reading comprehension) and independent variables (Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge). That is, Attitude to reading comprehension (r = .471, N = 95, p < .05) and vocabulary knowledge (r = .356, N= 95, p < .05), and Biogenetics factors (r = .344, N = 250, p < .05). It implies that, there was a  significant positive relationship between the dependent variable (achievement in reading comprehension) and independent variables (Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge). RQ2: What is the joint contribution of Attitude to reading com- prehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension? Table 3. Summary of Regression Analysis of the combined prediction of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension .R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 0.473 0.224 0.207 3.69819 SUMMARY REGRESSION ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F P Remark Regression 362.639 2 181.320 13.258 0.000 P<0.05 Sig. Residual 1258.245 92 13.677 Total 1620.884 94 Table 3 showed that there was a  joint contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension. That is achievement in reading comprehension correlated positively with the independent variables (Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge). The table also shows a  coefficient of multiple correlations (R) of 0.473 and a multiple R square of 0.224. This means that 20.7% (Adj. R2 = 0.207) of the variance in the students’ achievement in reading comprehension is accounted for by the independent variables, when taken together. The significance of the joint contribution was tested at p < 0.05 using the F- ratio at the degree of freedom (df- 2/92). The table also showed that the analysis of variance for the regression yielded a  F-ratio of 13.258. This is tested at significant at 0.05 level. RQ3: What is the relative contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension? 441Araromi Maxwell Olakunle. Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors ... Table 4. Relative contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variables (Test of significance of the regression coefficients) Variable Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients Model (B) Std. Error Beta T Sig. Remark Constant 17.744 2.217 – 8.004 .000 – Attitude to reading comprehension .448 .132 .538 3.390 .001 P<0.05(Sig.) Vocabulary knowledge .070 .133 .183 2.522 .033 P<0.05(Sig.) Table 4 reveals there is a  significant relative contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension, expressed as beta weights. There is correlation coefficient of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge on the dependent variable (students’ achievement in reading comprehension). Using the standardized regression coefficient to determine the relative contributions of the independent variables, attitude to reading comprehension (β =  0.538, t  = 3.390, p < 0.05) indicates most potent contributor to the prediction, follow by Vocabulary knowledge (β = 0.183, t  = 2.522, p < 0.05) which has relative contribution to the achievement in reading. reveals there is a  significant relative contribution of Attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension, expressed as beta weights. comprehension. It implies that there is a  significant relative contribution of attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension. RQ4: Which of the two factors would predict students’ achievement in reading comprehension in French language? Table 5. The most predictors of the two factors attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students Model (B) Std. Error Beta T Sig. Attitude to reading comprehension .448 .132 .538 3.390 .001 Vocabulary knowledge .070 .133 .183 2.522 .033 Using the standardized regression coefficient to determine the relative contributions of the independent variables, attitude to reading comprehension (β =  0.538, t  = 3.390, p < 0.05) indicates most potent contributor to 442 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the prediction, follow by Vocabulary knowledge (β = 0.183, t  = 2.522, p < 0.05) which has relative contribution to achievement in reading comprehension. It implies that Attitude to reading comprehension predict students’ achievement in reading comprehension in French language Discussion The findings revealed that there was significant positive relationship between the dependent variable (achievement in reading comprehension) and independent variables (attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge). The  findings corroborate the submission of Bernhardt (2005) and Wang (2009) that says that knowledge of words is a  determining factor in language proficiency and success in affinity with comprehension of text. The findings of Tannenbaum, Torgenson and Wagner, (2006) and Shiotu and Weir (2007) also attested to the fact that there is relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. The  strength and viability of the knowledge of vocabulary and attitude to reading comprehension cannot be under-estimated since various findings have established the link between these variables of interest in this study. Adequate attention should be focused on them by practicing foreign language teachers in the course of teaching–learning process. The findings of this study also revealed the joint contribution of attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension. This confirms the findings of Lawal 2008 that states that deficiency in reading comprehension is not dercernible in students but they have negative habits of reading widely which otherwise translates to the fact that reading culture is lacking in the students . Bernhardt (2005) and Wang, (2009) also affirmed that knowledge of words is a  determining factor in language proficiency and success in academic pursuit because of its close affinity with comprehension of text. The findings of this study also affirmed that there is a  significant relative contribution of attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge to students’ achievement in reading comprehension. These findings corroborate the submission of Snow (2002) that found that there is strength of relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. This submission also correlates with the findings of Gelderen (2004) which concluded that there is significant relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension.The findings of this study also revealed that attitude indicates more potent contribution to the prediction. The findings of Lawal (2008) affirmed that students cultivate negative attitude to reading even though they might not be deficient in 443Araromi Maxwell Olakunle. Attitude and Vocabulary Knowledge as Predictors ... reading. This submission portends a  change in attitude towards reading comprehension because reading is strong determinant of academic success. Conclusion This study was conducted to determine the relationship between the attitude of students to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge and their achievement in reading comprehension with particular emphasis on French Language as a foreign language in Nigeria. There was a significant positive relationship between the students’ attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge and their achievement in reading comprehension. Attitude to reading comprehension present more potent contribution to reading comprehension than vocabulary knowledge. Recommendations 1. French language teachers should pay maximum attention to the variables of attitude to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge because they have significant positive relationship with the achievement of students in reading comprehension. 2. French language teachers should help ameliorate the attitudinal disposition of the learners of French to reading comprehension in French language. The  teachers of French language could adopt appropriate instructional strategies or motivational techniques that could impart positive attitude into the learners. 3. French language teachers need to work assiduously to improve on the vocabulary knowledge of learners as this could constitute constraints or impediments to attaining competence in reading comprehension. 4. Stakeholders in foreign language education should organize workshops, seminars and conferences that would enlighten the in- service teachers on the influence of attitude of learners to reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge on their achievement in foreign language reading comprehension. References Bernhardt, E. (2005) Progress and procrastination in second language reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 133–150. Carnine, L and Carnine, D. 2004. The  interaction of reading skill and science content knowledge when teaching struggling secondary students. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 20, 203–218. Fakeye, B 2017 Contextual Redefinition and Vocabulary self–collection strategies as determinants of senior secondary students ‘achievement in English Vocabulary and 444 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ReadingComprehension in Ibadan, Nigeria. An unpublished Ph. D thesis submitted to the Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Lawal, R A (2008) Cultivating the Culture of Reading in Nigeria. A Paper delivered at the Fountain University, Osogbo, Osun State. Maher Salah, S, (2008). The  relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension of authentic Arabic texts. Brigham Young University. Mehrpour, S, Razmjoo, S & Kian, ( 2011) The relationship between Depth and Breadth of Vocabulary Knowledge and Comprehension among Iranian EFL Learners, Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 222 (53). Snow, C. (2002) Reading for Understanding: Towards an R & D Program in Reading Comprehension test performance. Santa Monica: The RAND Corporation. 445Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE CONTRIBUTION OF TRANSNATIONAL LEARNING TO THE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS Zanda Rubene University of Latvia, Latvia Gunita Elksne University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The study analyzes the concept of transnational learning in the context of professional development for teachers. The  aim of the study is to theoretically reflect on transnational learning as a  tool for the multi-dimensional professional development of teachers in the 21st century. One of the goals defined by UNESCO to be reached by the year 2030, is improved quality of education and lifelong learning, including teacher professional development.  Teacher Professional Development Forms develop and change both vertically and horizontally, from passive to active solution search, experience-based learning. The study examines the professional growth of adults in 3 different theories: Kegan constructive-developmental theory, Drago-  Seversone  learning-oriented model for school leadership and Nonaka and Takeuchi SECI organizational knowledge creation theory. The authors’ conclusions on transnational learning as a  tool for teacher professional development are based on the findings of, Bruno-Jofré, and Johnston, as well as Johnson and OECD. As well as researching previous studies on transnational learning available on the Ebsco and Web of science websites. Methodology: In the process of research, using the method of analysis of scientific literature, conclusions have been drawn on the transnational learning role in the professional development of teachers. Keywords: professional development, adult education, transnational learning. Introduction In pedagogy, there is always a  topical question of how to transfer knowledge, skills, values, how to develop personality and create such conditions for growth that meet each person’s needs. Today, this question has become more urgent than ever, as the world is changing very rapidly, and so is the society, its values, and needs. This is also confirmed by https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.31 Zanda Rubene, Gunita Elksne The Contribution of Transnational Learning ... 446 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the goals set by UNESCO to be achieved till 2030, one of the seventeen goals being targeted towards qualitative education, meaning  – “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO, 2019) (OECD, 2019). However, education and educators do not adjust fast enough to meet all requirements. For many years’ professional development of teachers was organized as the transfer of additional knowledge and information to teachers, however, the issues to be solved nowadays require other competencies and other teacher’s abilities. Everyday life is volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous (VUCA) (Fadels, Bialika, & Trilings, 2017), (Reimers, 2016), so the teacher must learn as they do, learn to help himself. Teachers’ knowledge and the need for a  change in the nature of the profession were discussed in the OECD Educational Research and Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) conference “Teachers as learning specialists  – implications for Teacher’s pedagogical knowledge and professionalism” in Brussels, 2014. Pedagogical knowledge, that is, knowledge of teaching and learning refers to the specialized body of knowledge of teachers for creating effective teaching and learning environments for their students. There is an agreement that competence in teaching requires a  high level of pedagogical knowledge, but there is still a  need to assess teacher knowledge as the outcome of the teacher education system and as a  predictor of effective teaching and student achievement (Paniagua & Istance, 2018, p. 15). The  function of teachers has switched from being a subject matter expert who transmits information and explicit knowledge to act as a  facilitator of student learning in this society. Current reforms emphasize that teachers develop students’ skills in problem-solving, learning to learn, reflective thinking, teamwork. And one of the key questions of Innovative Pedagogy is – what is desirable for users (both students and future employers) (OECD, 2016)? Teachers and schools live in a society, which requires that they be adept at the same skills they are developing in their students ( Herman, 2018). “The Quality of the teaching workforce has the depth for student outcomes, as empirical research has shown that teacher quality has an impact on student achievement” (Guerriero, 2017) (Guskey, 2002). It means that there must be growth and development in teachers, their visions of the world, its cognition. “Today Teaching is treated as a career expressed by learning and life-long professional development” (Zamir, 2018). Well-known lectures and seminars are no longer able to provide teachers with the necessary support. New approaches, methods, forms are needed, ways of increasing their inner capacity, developing personal qualities. Teacher Professional Development Forms develop and change vertically and horizontally, from passive to active solution search, experience-based learning (Révai, 2017). 447Zanda Rubene, Gunita Elksne. The Contribution of Transnational Learning ... “Teachers should have opportunities for the creation and development of professional knowledge that includes ‘unsystematized’ personal experience, knowledge derived from practice settings, and propositional knowledge” (Day, 1999). Teachers must be ready to solve problems in the course of work and to live and learn simultaneously. One of the ways that meet the needs is the mutual assistance of teachers to each other in the classroom, professional groups, world. Also, in the professional further education of teachers, innovative pedagogical approaches and techniques, one of which is experience-based learning, must be taken over (OECD, 2016). “Professional Development (PD) models fall on a  continuum from highly adaptive to highly specified” (Koellner & Jacobs, 2015). In addition, being aware of the high demands on teacher competence both from the society, from parents, and from the pupils (OECD, 2019) the different life and professional experiences of teachers, the offer and opportunities of professional growth should also give the teacher positive emotions, wellbeing, a  chance to restart and recharge. Globalization has opened the world and allowed people to connect in new and exciting ways. We create unique systems that are developed through our life experiences and passions. Combining experience-based learning and globalization leads to transnational learning and education. Adult learning theories and models that justify the contributions of transnational learning One of the theories on which the authors base their argument is developed by Robert Kegan, growth psychologist, professor at Harvard University. Based on Piagets opinions on child development, Kegan has created a  theory that covers human growth throughout the whole life. The Kegan theory – constructive – developmental theory – basically explains how we, as adults, are creating something of importance in terms of cognitive, emotional, interpersonal and human personal experiences. Kegan does not think that development is the accumulation of new knowledge, but rather the change of way of acquiring knowledge, changing perception and explanation. The  main focus of Kegan’s theory is “the evolution of consciousness, the personal unfolding of ways organizing experience that is not simply replaced as we grow but subsumed into more complex systems of the mind” (Kegan, 1982). This theory offers a  variety of principles of understanding and supporting growth in adults, who have different life experiences and world perceptions, considering current events: adaptation challenges, power, responsibility, uncertainty, complexities, growth- enhancing environment. Kegan`s constructive  – developmental theory offers the structure of individual meaning building systems. It also covers 448 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the way we think of an environment for learning that can contribute to growth. The way humans acquire knowledge or dominant thinking determines how each new experience is perceived and how it is interpreted. It’s like a window through which we look at the world, others and ourselves. Kegan divides adult development into 5 levels: • Impulsive mind, • Imperial mind, • Socialized mind, • Self-Authoring mind, • Self-Transforming mind (Kegan, 1982). To promote growth, we first need to understand what kind of knowledge acquisition way the adult is using. Only then it`s possible to decide what support, what methods and techniques to offer for each adult’s growth, so that they can feel safe: feel like they are accepted just the way they are, not “forced” to change, that the type of growth is appropriate to the abilities and desires, with enough opportunities and challenges to create a  more effective development context. Creating learning activities, initiatives that support, promote adult development at both professional and personal levels  – it gives ideas on how to increase capacity, how to think, communicate on development. Drago-Severson has developed a  practical model based on Kegan’s theory, which she describes as follows: “Constructive-developmental theory emphasizes the qualitatively different ways in which we, as human beings, make sense of our own experiences and the world, and it emphasizes that all people can continue to grow, learn, and develop throughout their lives” (Drago-Severson, 2012, p. 22). In Core Elements of Learning Environments for Leadership Development, Drago- Severson identifies four ways of perception of the world, typical of adults, describes supports and challenges that can be infused into pillar practices to promote growth in adults with different ways of knowing. Drago – Severson at the center of her model puts care (honestly valuing aspects of a person and focusing on that person’s well-being), respect (seeing and acknowledging individuals’ rights), trust, collaboration (engaging, having connected conversations, to work together) and intentionality (being purposeful about environments, forms) (Drago-Severson, 2012, p. 61). Concerning the professional development of teachers, opinions on the importance of the environment as well as on pillar practices are particularly relevant. These pillar practices – teaming, providing leadership roles, engaging in collegial inquiry and mentoring – are methods that help to grow and support adult’s internal capacities (Drago-Severson, 2009). Of course, these methods can also be implemented within the school, but they 449Zanda Rubene, Gunita Elksne. The Contribution of Transnational Learning ... are much more effective in other environments that transnational learning can provide. Another adult development model  – a  dynamic model for measuring knowledge level of organizations based on Nonaka and Takeuchi Model (SECI- (socialization-externalization-combination-internalization). Model covers the necessary four dimensions of knowledge “knowledge volume” the amount of knowledge), “knowledge value” (the importance and weight of existing knowledge), transformation speed of different types of knowledge” (the transformation of different kinds of knowledge) and “knowledge advantages and expenses” (the production expenses and  transfer of knowledge and their interests) (Nezefati, Afrazeh, & Jalali, 2009). This model can explain varied scenarios and policies of knowledge management. Theory talks about what to know, how to understand, what is socialization, how to share knowledge, how to use knowledge, and who has the right to do so. The two most complex steps in knowledge transformation include changing the type of knowledge  – externalization, transforming tacit knowledge into explicit, and internalization  – transforming explicit knowledge into tacit. These two steps require a  great deal of personal involvement and usually include mental models, personal beliefs and values, as well as a change of perception of yourself, your group, and your entire organization. Creating knowledge is not a linear, sequential process. It is rather determined by the continuous and dynamic interaction between implicit and explicit knowledge. Theories show that adult education is valuable for both the individual and the organization, if it is transformative, which can be achieved if the individual is actively involved in the process of acquiring knowledge. Studies and conclusions on transnational learning In 1999, the European Network on Teacher Education Policies (ENTEP) started a  conversation on a  term called European Teacher. Easy Mobility as a benefit of the EU was also examined. It was acknowledged that both physical and virtual collaboration between the pupil and the teacher, not only when studying what`s necessary for lessons, but also getting to know the language, culture, and diversity of people, is one of the ways to promote teachers’ professional development and the quality of education in general (European Commission, 2018). “A European Teacher who has experienced the value of mobility encourages students to develop this general culture, along with a critical perspective, so that they may become autonomous, responsible and active citizens. This culture forms the basis for the acquisition of skills that enable students to move around, live and work in different European cultures. As well as familiarity with different 450 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 cultures, a  European Teacher also needs to be able to analyze complex intercultural issues in order to enhance cross-cultural learning processes” (Schratz, 2014). Most of the European education development policies are focused on higher education, Ph.D. students and university lecturers, however, contribution to the professional development of teachers after formal education was also considered. “Raising teacher education quality so as, in turn, to raise the quality of education and training in the European Union in a way that responds to the challenges of lifelong learning in a knowledge- based society” (European Commission, 2018). Transnational teacher education programs are growing very quickly, and UNESCO considers that there “exists a  lack of comprehensive frameworks for coordinating various initiatives at the international level” (OECD, 2005, p. 4) (Lancrin, 2004). Not only European countries are interested in transnational teaching, but it is topical all over the world. There is a lot of talk about it at the theoretical level, but there is not much practical experience yet, UNESCO explains this that ”transnational teachers education is still too recent and too small phenomenon” (OECD, 2005, p. 13). There is no unified approach to terminology yet, all transnational learning, transnational education, cross-border education, borderless education, and cross-cultural education are used. If we look at the researches posted on Web of Science and Ebsco with the keywords Transnational learning and professional development, these are basically social studies: Training of migrants, bilingual learning. Looking at the research done in transnational education (TNE) with the focus of professional development, the range of studies also is small: Ebsco  – 24 articles, Web of Science – 35. The leading positions include Australia and England and the United States. In Europe, there are very little researches to be found with these keywords. The existing researches are mainly about higher education, which includes research on growth in student mobility (Hussin, 2007), education of university teaching staff (Smith, 2009), success/failures of different programs in a  specific country (Kun, 2019). Researches on schools describing the experience of specific schools in hosting students, as well as the individual cooperation of teachers in some context of the subject (Erixon & Wahlström, 2016). Some researchers have also focused on education affecting migrants (Shibao, 2010), pre-primary education, and theoretical issues such as, how TNE develops leadership or how to build Curriculum focusing on TNE (Clarke, Johal, Sharp, & Quinn, 2016). And there are just a few studies related to the professional development of teachers, through using TNE. One of the researches is Janelle  M.  Johnson’s “Mapping a  New field: Cross-border professional development for teachers” (2011). In it, the author points out that “teachers’ 451Zanda Rubene, Gunita Elksne. The Contribution of Transnational Learning ... education in any society is based on a critical stance that extends far beyond the aims of mere ‘tolerance’ and ‘management’ of diversity. This position also recognizes that teacher learning occurs in both formal and informal contexts and must occur longitudinally in order to be effective” (Johnson, 2011, p. 127). Johnson also acknowledges that transnational education is booming, but research is scarce in proportion. One of her dissertation questions is: “In what ways is cross-cultural professional development for teachers a  transformative process for the teachers, their schools, and the communities in which they work?” (Johnson, 2011, p. 120). Lancrin believes that “Cross-border education can be a good capacity development tool for developing countries, for their tertiary education system but also, more broadly, for their economy“ (Lancrin, 2004, p. 36), and. Yvonne Hebert (Bruno-Jofre & edit., 2014). Teacher Education in a Transnational World offers a  genuinely international interdisciplinary examination of the challenges and opportunities associated with teacher education in the twenty-first century. However, the answer is not unambiguous, the result is influenced by many factors that are still awaiting their research. Arizona University scientist concludes in her dissertation that listing all the benefits of transnational learning is a difficult task: “The cross-border experience in itself was often salient for learning; there was an amazing range of potential outcomes during such experiences aside from the stated program content, and learning was multidirectional” (Johnson, 2011, p. 53). Conclusions In the 21st century, with the rapid development and transformation of both public values and needs, educational development, quality is very important, but it is not able to change fast enough. Teachers’ further education with traditional methods does not provide the necessary growth. Scientists’ findings suggest that adults are more effective in learning new things when they think about their past experience: personal and professional, and the opportunity to train in a team, taking a leadership role, learning under the leadership of a mentor, or watching and interviewing colleagues. Transnational learning is developing very rapidly, and more and more teachers use this method. The first research shows positive benefits but also marks dangerous aspects. Research in this area is needed to draw objective conclusions. 452 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 References Herman, I. R. (2018). Teachers’ and students’ personal development needs – theoretical perspectives. (pp. 699-706). Future Academy. DOI:10.15405/epsbs2018.06.84. Reimers, F. M. (2016.). Teaching and learning for the twenty-first century: educational goals, policies, and curricula from six nations. Cambridge: Harvard Education Press. DOI:1041317385. Zamir, S. (2018). A  Teaching Career: Mobility and Stagnation. Athens Journal of Education, 5(2), 145–161. DOI:10.30958/aje. Bruno-Jofre, R., & edit. (2014). Teacher education in a  transnational world. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Clarke, A., Johal, T., Sharp, K., & Quinn, S. (2016, December). Achieving equivalence: a  transnational curriculum design framework. International Journal for Academic Development., Vol. 21 (Issue 4), 364–376. DOI:10.1080/1360144X.2015.1092444. Day, C. (1999). Developing Teachers: The  Challenges of Lifelong Learning. Educational Change and Development Series. London: Falmer Press. Drago-Severson, E. (2009). Leading Adult Learning: Supporting Adult Development in Our Schools. New York: Corwin, A Sage Company. Drago-Severson, E. (2012). Helping Educators Grow. Cambridge: Harvard Education Press. Erixon, E.-L., & Wahlström, N. (2016, January). In-service training programs for mathematics teachers nested in transnational policy discourses. European Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 39(Issue 1), 94-109. DOI:10.1080/02619768.2015.1101062. European Commission. (2018, May 22). Building a  stronger Europe: new initiatives to further boost the role of youth, education and culture policies. Retrieved March 16, 2019, from http://europa.eu: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-3704_ en.htm?locale=en/22.05.2018. Fadels, Č., Bialika, M., & Trilings, B. (2017). Četru dimensiju izglitība. Lielvārde: Lielvārds. Fadels, Čārlzs. (n.d.). Guerriero, S. (Eds.). (2017). Pedagogical Knowledge and the Changing Nature of the Teaching Profession. Paris: OECD Publishing. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264270695-en. Guskey, T. (2002). Professional Development and Teacher. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol. 8, 381–391. DOI: 10.1080/135406002100000512. Hussin, V. (2007, Nov). Supporting off-shore students: a preliminary study. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 363-376. DOI:10.1080/14703290701602763. Johnson, J. (2011). Mapping a new field: cross-border professional development for teachers. Arizona. Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: problem and process in human development. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Koellner, K., & Jacobs, J. (2015). Distinguishing models of professional development: The  case of adaptive models’ impact on teachers’ knowledge, instruction, and student achievement. Journal of Teacher Education, 66 (1), 51–67. DOI: 10.1177/ 0022487114549599. 453Zanda Rubene, Gunita Elksne. The Contribution of Transnational Learning ... Kun, D. (May 2019). Chinese students’ assessment and learning experiences in a transnational higher education program. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1608907. Lancrin, V. (2004). Building capacity through cross-border tertiary education. (p. 40). Sidney: OECD publishing. Nezefati, N., Afrazeh, A., & Jalali, M. (2009). A  dynamic model for measuring the knowledge level of organizations based on Nonaka and Takeuchi Model (SECI). Scientific Research and Essay Vol. 4 (5), 531–542. OECD. (2005). http://www.oecd.org. Retrieved from Guidelines for Quality Provision. OECD. (2016). Innovating Education and Educating for Innovation: The  Power of Digital Technologies. Paris: OECD Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/20769679. OECD. (2019, March 22). OECD and the Sustainable Development Goals: Delivering on universal goals and targets. Retrieved March 22, 2019, from www.oecd.org: http://www. oecd.org/dac/sustainable-development-goals.htm. OECD. (2019, June 19). Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners. Paris. Paniagua, A., & Istance, D. (2018). Teachers as Designers of Learning Environments. Paris: OECD publishing. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264085374-en. Révai, N. (2017). Teachers’ knowledge dynamics and innovation in education – Part I. DOI: 10.21549/NTNY.20.2017.4.1. Schratz, M. (2014). The  European Teacher: Transnational Perspectives in Teacher Education Policy and Practice. c e p s Journal. Vol. 4, No. 4. 11–27. Shibao, G. (2010, Mar/Apr). Lifelong learning in the age of transnational migration. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 143–147. DOI:10.1080/02601371003616509 Smith, K. (2009, Jun). Transnational teaching experiences: an under-explored territory for transformative professional development. International Journal for Academic Development, Vol. 18 (Issue 2), p. 111–122. DOI:10.1080/13601440902969975. Sprott, R. (2019). Factors that foster and deter advanced teachers’ professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 77, 321–331. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.11.001. UNESCO. (2019). en.unesco.org. Retrieved from Leading Education 2030. 454 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 SUPPORT TEAM FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS IN LATVIAN SCHOOLS Ilze Šūmane University of Latvia, Latvia Baiba Martinsone University of Latvia, Latvia Dita Nīmante University of Latvia, Latvia Malgožata Raščevska University of Latvia, Latvia Solvita  Umbraško University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT By analysing the challenges of special education in the 21st century, it has been concluded that implementation of an inclusive approach in general education schools is one such challenge. An important element of developing an inclusive education system is the support team at the school. The aim of this article is to describe the currently available personnel, and the personnel necessary for education and support of children with special needs in the educational process. We will analyse the education of the personnel involved regarding the requirements of special education, the existence of support teams and the specialists involved and needed, comparing the experiences of general education and special education schools. For this descriptive design empirical research, we have used data acquired by surveys and used methods of descriptive statistics to process the answers. Research results indicate the need for widening the access to professional development programmes for pedagogues in the field of special (inclusive) education to strengthen the professional competence of pedagogues. The  survey shows that currently in Latvian schools the subject teachers are the ones that largely contribute to the support activities (e.g., preparation of suitable learning materials) and greater support has been requested regarding accessibility of learning materials, as well as a wider range of available methodical materials. Keywords: inclusive education, school support team, supporting personnel, child with special needs. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.32 Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško .. 455Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško ... Introduction In Latvia, until the 1990s, general education institutions had no unit for school support personnel, and only the help of a  speech therapist was available to the youngest pupils. It was not until the 21st century, when Latvia started to move towards an inclusive approach, that general education schools began creating permanent support personnel positions, such as school psychologist, special educator and social pedagogue. Research indicates that a  support team is a  formation element of an inclusive education system (Barrow, 2013; Rozenfelde, 2016; Tūbele  & Vīgante, 2014) and, furthermore, it is a  significant support factor in teachers’ professional activity. The aim of the article is to describe what personnel is available now, and what kind of personnel would be needed for the education of children with special needs and for providing them with support during the educational process. The article analyses the current situation in Latvian educational institutions, both in general and in special schools. It analyses the education of the personnel involved in the field of special education, the presence of a  support team, and the specialists involved and needed, comparing the experiences of general and special schools. This article was prepared during the Study on the Financial Model for the Education of Children with Special Needs in Latvia, conducted by Raščevska, et al, 2017. The research was carried out by scientists from the University of Latvia under the order of the Latvian Ministry of Education and Science from May 2017 until December 2017. Methodology In order to collect data for the descriptive design empirical research, we have used data acquired by survey and methods of descriptive statistics to process the answers The survey of teachers from general education institutions (TGEI) had 280  respondents. Since there was a  significant number of school management representatives in this sample, this sample was categorised into two subgroups: teachers (211  in total) and school management representatives (69 in total). Two hundred sixty-three respondents participated in a survey of teachers from special education institutions (TSEI). The results of the survey may be influenced by the level of training of the respondents in the field of special education. Many teachers (48%) note that they have no education in this area. Only 15%  of teachers indicate 456 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 that they have a special teacher/pedagogue or speech therapist education (obtained at bachelor or master level). Approximately 30% of teachers have completed a  72-hour course training in special pedagogy. Furthermore, most of the teachers who chose the Other education response (7%) indicate either a smaller extent of special course training or that they are studying in that field. Research questions: 1) Are there any support personnel teams in special and general education schools? 2) What specialists are involved in the teams? 3) What kind of specialists would be needed for the operation of a support team? 4) What is the frequency of team meetings? Literature Review A support team should provide support for the classroom teacher, help reduce the difficulties a pupil may face in the classroom or outside the class hours, and support pupils as well as parents. Researchers point out that the lack of professional support in educational institutions can lead to a crisis, given that the personnel of the educational institution do not understand what to do in difficult situations (Giangreco, Suter, & Hurley, 2013). If there is a  support personnel group in an educational institution, it does not automatically lead to teamwork. Poorly coordinated and individual work of even highly professional specialists in various fields does not lead to the expected result. An essential aspect of the support team work is the cooperation and collaboration of specialists and subject teachers. Research on pedagogue collaboration with a  special education teacher shows that many teachers consider working with support personnel as an interference in their work, as a  burden rather than help. Situations where the support teams were given an official time for planning, discussion, and evaluation were assessed as positive (Lacey, 2001; Milteniene & Venclovaite, 2012). This indicates the need to provide time resources for teacher collaboration with the support team. A team is characterized by united management, common goals, mutual cooperation, and conditions of confidentiality (i.e., when team members share information while solving problems, the boundaries of confidentiality are widened but not broken since no information is disclosed outside the team). Optimally, the support team consists of a  member of administration (deputy director, educational methodologist, director), a  psychologist, 457Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško ... a  special pedagogue/teacher of special education, a  social pedagogue, a speech therapist, a teacher’s aide, a medical worker, and a teacher (class teacher, subject teacher), while parents are also invited to attend the meetings. Work of the team involves close collegial cooperation in defining a  problem (such as a  pupil’s difficulties in the learning process), putting forward hypotheses, discussing solutions, elaborating a detailed plan for the activities of each party involved, and setting deadlines for evaluating the decision, adjusting the action plan if necessary (Newton, Todd, Algozzine, Horner &Algozzine, 2009). The task of the support team is to develop pupils’ individual development plans, meet regularly, support and monitor the implementation of the plan, analyse the effectiveness of plans, manage the resources of the school and community that need to be used, report to the school administration on the trends of the support domain, make proposals for the school development plan, and support pupils, teachers and parents. Results One of the areas of working with special needs pupils is the mutual collaboration of school personnel, that is the creation of a team within the school dedicated to work with special needs pupils. A comparatively positive experience of setting up school teams in educational institutions is evidenced by the survey results, which indicate that, in most schools, such teams have been created. However, 14%  of general education institution management representatives say that no such team has been set up in their school. Whereas among the surveyed pedagogues this answer was provided by 9% of general education school pedagogues and 4% of special education institution pedagogues. By studying the experience of the schools surveyed, it can be concluded that a large number of Latvian schools have established rules of procedure for their school support team, which are also available on their school websites. Among those surveyed, 45%  of general school management represen- tatives, 29% of general school pedagogues and 41%  of special education pedagogues report that they regularly work in a  support team (see Figure 1), while around 30% of respondents in all groups report that they work in a support team if necessary. 458 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 21% 33% 41% 4% 31% 30% 29% 9% 9% 32% 45% 14% I do not parcipate in such a team I parcipate as needed, on a case by case basis I parcipate in such a team regularly My educaonal instuon does not have such a team 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% Management of general educaon instuon Teachers from general educaon instuons Teachers of special educaon instuon Figure 1. Participation in a team dealing with special education issues The results of the survey on what kind of specialists participate in school support teams indicate that the most common team members are a speech therapist and a psychologist (see Figure 2). However, other specialists are indicated varyingly: 57% of TGEI survey respondents report that their team has a class teacher, and 65% of TSEI survey respondents provide this answer. There was a  greater number of special pedagogue and medical personnel among teams in special educational institutions. This is to be expected because, when implementing a  special education programme, recruitment of such specialists is greater. This fact has to be taken into account, implementing the integration of special needs learners in general education schools will require greater availability of these specialists. 82% 81% 65% 70% 92% 57% 4% 6% 10% 5% 73% 79% 57% 54% 52% 34% 12% 5% 3% 3% 86% 75% 57% 51% 49% 39% 14% 10% 0 7% Speech therapist Psychologist Class teacher Special pedagogue Medical personnel Subject teachers My educaonal instuon does not have such a team Representaves of the school management Other Social pedagogue 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Management of general educaon instuon Teachers from general educaon instuons Teachers of special educaon instuon Figure 2. Specialists working in support team 459Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško ... A wider range of additional personnel in educational institutions that implement special education programmes is also evidenced by the results of the TSEI pedagogue survey where pupils with special needs have access not only to a  speech therapist, psychologist, nurse, social pedagogue and special pedagogue, but also, for example, a  teacher aide, therapeutic exercise teacher, doctor, canistherapist, masseur, music therapist, or motion therapist. Educational institutions have different experiences in setting up support teams, thus suggestions on what additional specialists need to be included in such a  team are also very different. Only 7% of school heads say that all specialists are already involved. Most frequently the respondents indicate that the team should include a special pedagogue (see Figure 3). Respondents of the TSEI survey indicate that it is important to include a psychologist (36%) and a class teacher (29%). It is noteworthy that in the TGEI survey, 32% indicate that the team should include medical personnel. All respondent groups report a subject teacher’s participation in teamwork. 32% 36% 9% 29% 25% 25% 3% 13% 6% 1% 3% 36% 32% 32% 27% 25% 23% 11% 8% 4% 1% 1% 38% 26% 17% 23% 22% 12% 10% 7% 7% 1% 3% Special pedagogue Psychologist Medical personnel Class teacher Subject teachers Speech therapist My educaonal instuon does not have such a team Other All necessary specialists are already involved Representaves of the school management Social pedagogue 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% Management of general educaon instuon Teachers from general educaon instuons Teachers of special educaon instuon Figure 3. Specialists needed in support team work The rules of procedure for each school support team may define varied team functions, however, the most frequently stated is individual programme planning. School management representatives and participants of the TSEI survey, 61% and 56% respectively, indicate that they decide on the choice of support measures. The  third most important function mentioned in 460 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the survey responses is the creation of a research/diagnosis plan. It can be concluded that the support team work is more related to support planning, rather than the analysis function which is performed much less frequently: 33% of pedagogues and 39% of management representatives indicate that they perform evaluation of development progress. However, this would be an important step in determining the effectiveness of support measures and in planning further support. It is possible that support teams have not yet established a culture of feedback analysis, they focus on first-time case consideration and planning, leaving evaluation up to the subject teacher. It can also be related to limited time resources. The irregular frequency of the support team meetings on joint work is demonstrated by a  survey in which 26% of  the educational institution management representatives indicate that the team meetings are held once or twice a  month, and 48%  hold the meetings around a  few times a semester (see Figure 4). Pedagogues indicate a  lower frequency of such meetings. 39% 20% 33% 3% 4% 0% 32% 29% 22% 9% 7% 1% 48% 6% 26% 14% 3% 3% Around a few mes a semester I do not know, because I do not take part in them Approximately once or twice a month My educaonal instuon does not have such a team Approximately once a year No such meengs took place during the last school year 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Management of general educaon instuon Teachers from general educaon instuons Teachers of special educaon instuon Figure 4. Frequency of team meetings When it comes to supporting pupils with special educational need, an important element is selecting and creating teaching materials appropriate for the pupil. The results of the TSEI survey indicate that this function is most often carried out by the pedagogues themselves: 63% indicate that they prepare the materials themselves and 64% adapt the study materials or search the Internet. Individual preparation of teaching materials is an additional task for the pedagogue; therefore, it is important to strengthen the cooperation among teachers, the involvement of support personnel and the use of resource centres. Regarding support needed for the pedagogues themselves in terms 461Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško ... of methodology, 59% of pedagogues and 74% of school management point out that the most needed are ready-to-use methodological materials and a  wider range of methodological materials. Regarding personnel, pedagogues also express the need for a second pedagogue in the classroom (32%), a  teacher aide (51%), or the opportunity to invite a  special pedagogue (22%). Respondents expressed the need to strengthen the professional competence of pedagogues as well; they need easy access to pedagogical literature (14%  of pedagogues), the opportunity to consult on topical issues at school (14%), regular attendance of further education courses (26%), and additional knowledge on the special needs of each pupil (49%). Likewise, pedagogues point to the need to use technical aids (38%) and to adapt premises (30%). Various external (financial, technical) resources are required to provide such support, but mutual collaboration between teachers in a  support team can also contribute to addressing the issues identified. Conclusions and Suggestions The results of the research indicate the necessity to provide as broad access as possible to pedagogical professional development programmes in special (inclusive) education in order to strengthen the professional competence of pedagogues. The results of the pedagogues’ survey illustrate that pupils with SEN and the teachers themselves do not always receive the necessary support and deal with issues within their pedagogical competence. In order to provide the SEN pupils with the necessary support in the learning process, schools create support teams whose activities are regulated by the educational institutions themselves, so the range of professionals working in these teams, the functions performed, and the regularity of team cooperation vary. In order for the support team to be helpful to both the pupil and the teacher in the day-to-day learning process, there should be a regular cooperation of the team of specialists, that would not only be aimed at planning, but also at assessing the effectiveness of the support measures. The support teams in general education schools should have more involvement of special pedagogues, whereas in the support teams of special education institutions should have more social pedagogues and psychologists involved. It is advisable for the support team to include specialists such as a special pedagogue, social pedagogue, speech therapist, medical personnel representative, and school administration representative. For support in particular cases, the teacher of the particular subject and the class teacher should also be involved. 462 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The work of the support team should take place on a  regular basis, meetings should convene at least twice a  month, if necessary, assessing, for example, the individual plan executed for the education programme acquisition of the learner. However, in cases, such as those with behavioural disorders, the monitoring of the plan should be more frequent. In turn, the everyday task of the support team specialists is to provide the pupil with diverse support and provide the pedagogue with methodological support. A study on the cost model for support services for children with special needs in the context of inclusive education (Raščevska et al., 2017) concludes that the number of support personnel workers at an educational institution should be related to the number of pupils in that educational institution or in the Support and Counselling Centres serving these schools, setting certain regulations, for example, one psychologist per 600 pupils and one speech therapist per 200 pupils, as well as the number of special programmes implemented in the educational establishments with integrated children with special educational needs. If the regulations would change to stipulate that the statements issued by the State Pedagogical Medical Commission shall be an administrative act, then the functions of the school support team would be to prepare and provide the support measures stipulated by these statements. If it is not possible to ensure the availability of support specialists and support measures at each educational institution, such support teams can be formed according to the territorial principle, one per several educational institutions, by concentrating support specialist services at either the municipal or regional level, thus creating resource centres accessible to educational institutions and parents. The results of the survey indicate that at the moment a  large contribution in preparation of support measures (suitable study materials) is only provided by the subject teachers, yet the need is expressed for more support in the availability of study materials, in particular the ready-to-use methodological materials and a broader range of methodological materials. In order to provide more targeted support to learners with special needs, especially when implementing the principle of inclusive education, there is a need for additional pedagogical resources, such as a second pedagogue in the classroom, teacher assistant, or external special pedagogue. References Barrow, G. (2013). Delivering effective behaviour support in schools: A  practical guide. Hoboken: David Fulton Publishers. Giangreco, M. F., Suter, J. C., & Hurley S. M. (2013). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education, 47, 121–132. 463Ilze Šūmane, Baiba Martinsone, Dita Nīmante, Malgožata Raščevska, Solvita  Umbraško ... Lacey, P. (2001). Support partnerships: Collaboration in action. London: David Fulton Publishers. Milteniene, L., & Venclovaite, I. (2012). Teacher collaboration in the context of inclusive education.  Specialusis Ugdymas, 27(2), 99–123. Newton, J. S., Todd, A. W., Algozzine, K., Horner, R. H., & Algozzine, B. (2009). The team initiated problem solving (TIPS) manual. Eugene, OR: Educational and Community Supports, University of Oregon. Raščevska, M., Nīmante, D., Umbraško, S., Šūmane, I., Martinsone, B., & Žukovska, I., (2017). Pētījums par bērniem ar speciālām vajadzībām sniedzamo atbalsta pakalpojumu izmaksu modeli iekļaujošas izglītības īstenošanas kontekstā [Study on the financial model for support services for children with special needs in the context of the implementation of inclusive education in Latvia]. Rīga. Retrieved from http://www.izm.gov.lv/images/ izglitiba_visp/IZMiepirkumamLUPPMFgalaparskats08122017.pdf. Rozenfelde, M. (2016). Skolēnu ar speciālajām vajadzībām iekļaušanas vispārējās izglītības iestādēs atbalsta sistēma [Support system for promoting the process of inclusion of learners with special needs in general education institutions]. Rīga, LU. Retrieved from http://dspace.lu.lv/dspace/bitstream/handle/7/32003/298-55964-Rozenfelde_Marite_ mr16007.pdf?sequence=1 Mārīte Rozen-felde. Tūbele, S., & Vīgante, R. (2014). Speciālās pedagoģijas izaicinājumi 21.  gadsimtā. [Challenges of special pedagogy in the 21st century]. Retrieved from http://www.lza.lv/ LZA_VestisA/68_1-2/4_SarmiteTubele_RasmaVigante.pdf. 464 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 GROUNDED THEORY METHODOLOGY FOR UNDERSTANDING HOW EQUINE ASSISTED LEARNING CONTRIBUTES TO ADULT LEARNING Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to provide a theoretical review of Grounded Theory methodologies and their application in research, to understand how adults learn through guided human and horse interaction during an Equine Assisted Learning session. There are many debates about similarities and differences between Glaserian Grounded Theory (GGT), Strauss and Corbin Grounded Theory (SGT) and Constructivist Grounded Theory (CGT). All three approaches have been analyzed with the aim of understanding mutual similarities and differences between them, as well as understanding original ideas for conceptualizing these approaches and to select a  Grounded Theory approach that best matches the research question – how adults learn when the learning takes place through guided human and horse interaction during an Equine Assisted Learning session. Key words: Adult learning, Equine Assisted Learning, Grounded Theory. Introduction “The central question of how adults learn has occupied the attention of researchers and educaters since the founding of adult education as a professional field of practice in the 1920s” (Merriam, 2001, p. 1). As well as is one of the central questions in an emerging discipline named Learning Sciences (Fischer et al., 2018). Adult learning is a extremly wide area of research and theory building. The knowledge and uderstanding about how adults learn is in the spotlight of practice  development for  adult education. There are many learning theories, but there is no one theory of adult learning that explains all that is known about adult learners, the process of learning, and the various contexts where learning takes place. Because learning is a complex process that can never be reduced to one simple explanation. The notion Equine Assisted Learning (EAL) in academic literature is new and it appeared only at the beginning of the 20th century. EAL could be defined as an innovative learning practice where learning takes place https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.33 Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane Grounded Theory Methodology for Understanding ... 465Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. Grounded Theory Methodology for Understanding ... through guided human and horse interactions that offers an individual and unique learning experience. EAL practice has taken place in a  variety of settings. Currently, there are several hundred programs across the world that utilize these programmes for different learning needs. It seems there are no bounds to the creativity involved when putting people and horses together for whatever reason. The positive outcomes that can be obtained from learning activities with horses are primarily illustrated through the marketing literature, and feedback from participants or practitioners. EAL practice is based on empirical work and is not theoretically founded in research data. There is a  need to initiate scientific dialogue about the importance of learning in an EAL practice. The  existing approaches and types of EAL points to the fact that this form of learning has a high applicability potential. Learning is a  multidimensional phenomenon, the more we know about how adults learn in an EAL practice, the better we are able to structure EAL activities that resonate with those adult learners with whom we work. Nevertheless all EAL programs have one common feature – human learning. There is not one theory founded in research data that explains  – how adults learn through guided human and horse interaction during EAL session and how this learning results (Gehtmane-Hofmane, Nīmante, 2015; Gehtmane-Hofmane, 2018; Gehtmane-Hofmane, 2019). Aim of the Study – to do empirical research and investigate and develop an analytical framework for understanding how adults learn when the learning takes place through guided human and horse interaction, and describes the different perspectives on how this learning occurs and results. The  research question “how adults learn” to be viewed in the framework of Equine Assisted Learning practice as a  learning space, where primary learning takes place. One of the study tasks and aims of this article – is to understand Grounded Theory methodologies and their application in research for understanding how adults learn when the learning takes place through guided human and horse interaction during EAL session. There are many debates about similarities and differences between Grounded Theory (GT) approaches. Three approaches have been analyzed with the aim of understanding mutual similarities and differences between them, as well as understanding original ideas for conceptualizing these approaches and to select a GT approach that best matches the aim of research. Background Grounded Theory (GT) is a  qualitative research methodology, that focuses on generating theories from the data. GT offers analytical techniques for qualitative content analysis. There are three prevailing approaches: 466 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Glaserian GT - originally developed by Glaser and Strauss (Glaser, Strauss 1967; Glaser, 2013), Straussian GT – originally developed by Straus and the latter co-developed with Corbin (Strauss, 1987; Straus, Corbin, 1990, Corbin, Strauss, 2015), and Constructivist GT which was developed by Kathy Charmaz (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018). To select a  Grounded Theory approach that matches the research question and the study’s purpose, as well as the author’s own perspectives and needs, an analysis has been carried out on all three Grounded Theory approaches. This article involves the analysis of primary data and academic literature written by leaders in the field of GT. Despite their divergence all three approaches claim the same origin and to embrance similar methodological techniques, but there are differences. Differences and similarities relating to guiding theories and assumptions: Glaserian GT based on critical realism, post – positivism and positivism, fostered orthodox view, mirrored a modernist epistemology and objectivist assumptions. Straussian GT based on positivist assumptions, is compatible with symbolic interactionism, pragmatist philosophical tradition, constructivist currents, assumed social constructionism approach in a more limited form and adopts a  realist position. Constructivist GT based on constructivism, relativist epistemology, social constructionism, adopts a  realist position, takes a  middle ground between postmodernism and positivism, symbolic interactionist theoretical perspective (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser,. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). Because of the differences, GT potentially offers methodologies for a variety of research and for researchers. Researchers with different worldviews, and different research questions, can chose a GT approach that matches their own perspectives and needs. Differences and similarities regarding data collection and analysis: In all three approaches data collection and analysis proceeds simultaneously. The process of analysis is cyclical as is the process of data collection, coding, categorization and theoretical sampling. All three approaches offer constant comparative methods which involves making comparisions during each stage of the analysis to establish analytic distinctions. In a  Constructivist GT approach data analysis begins to develop theories (explanations) that suggest further cases to sample and researchers can use GT strategies with a  variety of data collection methods (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). Across all GT approaches the data collection and analysis is systematic, and researchers may find it helpful particularly if they are new in using GT. 467Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. Grounded Theory Methodology for Understanding ... Differences and similarities regarding the character of data: In Glaserian GT and Straussian GT date is self-evident and speaks for itself. In a Constructivist GT data is a product of the research process, the research and the researcher co-construct the data. Data is a narrative construction, and reconstructions of experience to build data in an interactive and co- interpreted way (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). In Glaserian GT and Straussian GT external reality is independent from the researcher (Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). In Constructivist GT external reality depends on interaction between the researcher and research participant. Constructivist GT represents research participants as the constructor of reality that serves as the data. Participants reflect experience and behave like “free agents” with their own needs and interests, as a unique and autonomous individual (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser,  B.  2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990) Differences and similarities regarding role of researcher: In Glaserian GT the researcher stands outside the research process. The  researcher is a passive, neutral observer who collects the facts but did not participate in creating the data. The researcher is “tabula rasa” (blank slate), a distanced expert generating a  theory by careful application of all GT procedures minimizing human bias. The researcher should not impose their own views on the data and does not compose the story and their own experience on the data. Conceptualization into categories should also be abstract of researcher interpretation. The  researchers experience may just be more data. He raises participants’ perspectives to the abstract level of conceptualization and data and theoretical sensitivity is central (Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser,  B.  2013). Straussian GT strategies encourage the researcher to be do an active analysis of the data. According Strauss and Corbin (1990) the goal is for the researcher to increasingly possess “the attribute of having insight, the ability to give meaning to the data, the capacity to understand, and the capability to separate the pertinent from that which it isn’t” (Strauss, Corbin, 1990, p.41). In Constructivist GT the researcher is a part of the studied process and research situations. The task for the researcher is to learn the methods by which participants construct their realities and to make further interpretations about this reality through critically examining their construction of the research process as they seek to analyze how their research participants construct their experience. The  researcher makes an interactive impact on the data and co-composes the story. The story reflects the viewer as well as the viewed. The  researcher develops and proposes 468 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 a new understanding and a novel theoretical interpretation of the studied field that reflects the experiences and interactions of the participants and the researcher. According to Charmaz (2006), the researcher constructs data through observations, interactions and materials about the topic or setting, empirical events and experiences and pursues hunches and potential analytic ideas about the data. The central focus is on action and experience from the experiencing subject perspectives, on mutual creation of knowledge by the researcher and the research, and on the interpretive understanding of the subjects’ meanings (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018). In all three approaches, the analytic process employed, prompts theory discovery and development rather than verification of pre-existing theories. They offer the same analytic strategies but differ a little regarding coding strategy and types of codes. For example; Constructivist GT has both initial codes and in-vivo codes. In-vivo codes are used for participant’s special terms, it helps to preserve the participants meaning of their views. In- vivo codes serve as both symbolic markers of the participant’s speech and meaning. Like any other code, these codes need to be integrated into the theory and they need to be subjected to comparative and analytic treatment. In all three approaches categories are building from these codes, but in Constructivist GT there is a much wider range of analytical categories. 15 analytical categories were identified: narrow categories, pre-conceived/ pre-existing categories, subcategories, theoretical categories, core categories/general categories, major and minor categories, unintegrated categories, abstract categories, disciplinary categories, overlapping categories, potential categories, subsequent categories, low-level categories, conceptual categories and tentative categories (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). Differencies and similarities regarding provided guidelines: Glaserian GT provides directive instructions and a  strong justification for inductive qualitative inquiry. Straussian GT provides semi-flexible instructions and offers guidelines for prescribed procedures in concrete ways. Constructivist GT provides flexible guidelines that allow the researcher to adopt the method for the study and the specificity of the phenomenon being studied. It also offers general principles rather that directive instructions and rules. No set of rules dictate when and what the researcher needs to do (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). Glaserian GT delays a lliterature review and the researcher should begin research without the guidance of pre-conceived questions and theory. 469Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. Grounded Theory Methodology for Understanding ... Straussian GT also advocates delaying the literature review to avoid seeing the world through the lens of extant theories, however it does allow the researcher to do research with the guidance of pre-conceived open questions. Constructivist GT disavows the idea that the researcher should begin their studies without prior knowledge and theories about their topic. The researcher must have prior knowledge and theoretical pre-conceptions regarding their research field (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). Glaserian GT and Constructivist GT deals best with the research questions “how” and “what”, however Straussian GT deals with research questions “how”, “why” and “what” (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser,  B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990) Differences and similarities regarding goals and some tenets. Glaserian GT generates formal or middle-range theories from the data and seeks explanations and predictions at a  general level. This approach produces conceptually generated theory and examined hypotheses by measuring variables. Glaserian GT develops theories from research grounded in data rather than deducting testable hypotheses from existing theories. Led for valid instruments, procedures, replicable research designs, and verifiable quantitative generalizable knowledge - reducing qualities of human experience to quantifiable variables and to deal with facts rather than with what someone has said about them. Straussian GT generates formal, middle- range or substantive theories from the data. In generating substantive theory, it seeks theoretical interpretations or explanations of a delimited problem or theory applicable to a specific field. Constructivist GT generates a theory from empirical data through explanation and understanding at a  general level and seeks to develop an interpretive understanding of the studied phenomenon. Constructivist GT focuses on the research process, which is characterized by partnership and collaboration and seeks to understand the subjective experience and described processes (Charmaz, 2000; Charmaz, 2006; Charmaz, 2014; Charmaz, 2018; Corbin, Strauss, 2015; Glaser, Strauss, 1967; Glaser, B. 2013; Strauss, 1987; Strauss, Corbin, 1990). Conclusions The Equine Assisted Learning process is characterized by partnership and collaboration and the learning process is based on action and experience from the experiencing subject’s perspectives. Unlike Glaserian GT and Straussian GT, Constructivist GT offers a  collaborative approach to the research process and knowledge building. It focuses on the research 470 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 process, which is characterized by partnership and collaboration and helps to understand the subjective experience of the research participants. It also describes the processes required to develop an interpretive understanding of the studied phenomenon from the perspective of a subjective experience. The data analysis and data collection are also subjective. Constructivist GT focuses on a mutual creation of knowledge by the researcher and research participant. The Constructivist GT approach offers basic GT strategies with adopted Glaserian GT and Straussian GT methodological approaches and provides flexible guidelines that allow the researcher to adopt the method for the study and the specificity of the phenomenon being studied. Unlike Glaserian GT and Straussian GT, in Constructivist GT the data is a product of the research process, the researcher and research participants co-construct the data. Data is a  co-construction and reconstruction of experience and depends from interaction between the researcher and research participant in the research process. The  Equine Assisted Learning (EAL) process creates a  learning experience that is a  product of EAL and depends on the interaction between the horse, facilitator and the learner – (research participant). In both - EAL and Constructivist GT interactions, the experience, reflection and reflexivity are central. Unlike Glaserian GT and Straussian GT, the Constructivist GT approach emphasizes relativity not generality and reflexivity not objectivity and disagrees that the researcher should begin their studies without prior knowledge and theories about their topic. It means that the researcher must have prior knowledge and theoretical pre-conceptions about Equine Assisted Learning as the research field and adult learning as research topics. Constructivist GT deals best with research questions “how” and “what”, for example – “how” adults learn, “how” this learning occurs and the results. Unlike Glaserian GT and Straussian GT, in Constructivist GT the researcher is part of the studied process and research situations. He or she has two roles – objective observer and active research participant with influence on the data and analytic processes. The  researchers make an impact on the data and co-compose the story together with the research participant. It means that the story reflects the researcher as well as the research participant (learner) experience of learning within the Equine Assisted Learning sessions. Unlike Glaserian GT and Straussian GT, Constructivist GT represents research participants as the constructor of their own and unique reality, their needs and interests serve as the data. Either of the learning outcomes from Equine Assisted Learning sessions depends on the learner’s experience, values, needs, interests and ability to learn. Investigation of the Equine Assisted Learning process to understand how adults learn when the learning takes place through guiding human and 471Ilona Gehtmane-Hofmane. Grounded Theory Methodology for Understanding ... horse interaction and understand the different perspectives, for example, how research participants create the meaning of a learning situation, how this learning occurs and what results have strong constructivism leanings. Unlike Glaserian GT and Straussian GT, Constructivist GT offers basic GT steps and provides methodological guidance, that is flexible  enough with enough explanation and suggestions, which could be used as a work guide in an organization of this study. Constructivist GT offers guidelines for anyone who has a basic knowledge of research methods. There is one more important aspect when choosing a Constructivist GT approach in this study, this is the lack of the author’s experience in using this method. References Corbin, J. M., Strauss, A. L. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). Retrieved from: https://books.google. lv/books?id=hZ6kBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. Charmaz, K. (2000). Constructivist and objectivist grounded theory. In N. Denzin and Y. Lincoln (Eds.). Handbook of qualitative research, 2nd ed., pp. 509–535. SAGE Publications. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A  Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Retrieved from: https://books.google.lv/books?id=w2sDdv-S7Pg C&pg=PA130&lpg=PA130&dq=charmaz+2000&source=bl&ots=p0qk4UFJax&sig= ACfU3U1qDjUJ64h6wl_hE5LlRZKuE_Xdxw&hl=lv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiWw8_r26PjA hXi0qYKHWBYDA0Q6AEwCXoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false. Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. Charmaz, K. (2018). Thinking About Data With Grounded Theory. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328945741_Thinking_About_Data_With_ Grounded_Theory. Fischer, F., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Goldman, S. R., Reimann P. (Eds.) (2018). International Handbook of the Learning Sciences. Retrieved from: https://books.google.lv/books?id =JUxWDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=one page&q&f=false. Gehtmane-Hofmane I., Nīmante D. (2015). Equine Assisted Interventions: History, development, types and models of practice. Challenges and solutions for education in the 21st Century. “2015 ATEE Spring Conference – Teacher of the 21st Century: Quality Education for Quality Teaching”. Retrieved: https://books.google.lv/books?id=gO22D QAAQBAJ&pg=PA292&lpg=PA292&dq=Equine+Assisted+Interventions:+History, +development,+types+and+models+of+practice&source=bl&ots=1MA9Bj32yP&s ig=ACfU3U0AW0kOPOpeyBQpjPJKnk437MA-_Q&hl=lv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBjcz1 5qPjAhVnsIsKHUglArsQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=Equine%20Assisted%20 Interventions%3A%20History%2C%20development%2C%20types%20and%20 models%20of%20practice&f=false. Gehtmane-Hofmane I. (2018). Equine assisted learning: Symbolic value of horse as underlying pattern in human thinking. “SOCIETY, INTEGRATION, EDUCATION”. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17770/sie2018vol1.3379. ISSN 1691-5887. 472 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Gehtmane-Hofmane, I. (2019). The unique characteristics of horses for human learning purposes in Equine Assisted Learning practice. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SMART EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY. Issue 10 (3) pp. 85–91, ISSN25969852. Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L. (1967). The  discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Retrieved from: http://www.sxf.uevora.pt/wp-content/ uploads/2013/03/Glaser_1967.pdf. Glaser, B. (2013). No Preconceptions: The Grounded Theory Dictum. Sociology Press. Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education. Spring 2001, Vol. 2001, Issue 89, pp. 3–11. DOI: 10.1002/ace.3. Database: Academic Search Complete. Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Retrieved from: https:// books.google.lv/books?id=y16ww5ZsJ0AC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_sum mary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. Strauss, A. L., Corbin, J. M. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Sage Publications. 473Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 COLLECTIVE MUSIC MAKING AS A DEVELOPER OF A TEENAGE PERSONALITY AS A WHOLE Irēna Andersone University of Latvia, Latvia Guntars Bernāts University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The modern era of advanced technology places people at the computer, but practical action is what allows young people to learn, express and realize themselves. Collaborative skills are one of the most important lifestyle skills for preparing adolescents for life. The main idea of human interaction is to help the adolescent to develop, which is one of the main components of life activity. It is designed to develop initiative, self-control and self-assessment. Successful development of the social skills of pupils takes place in the interaction between pupils and the adults and pupils, themselves in the socialisation process: mutual perception, assessment and influence. Children and teachers may face a number of challenges when they come to school: children have different degrees of readiness for school, lack of readiness for the new psychological role, varying motivation to go to school, different levels of skills and abilities, so it is important to bring these children together more and create a more enjoyable time for them at school. One of the forms of learning that unites children definitely is collective music making, because learners act as a single team for a single purpose, allowing them to get to know each other better and become more open. The topicality of this research is indicated by the issue of promotion of self-realization of adolescents and development of creativity, which is actualized in pedagogy, because only such a personality in the future would be able to compete successfully in the labour market by generating and offering their ideas. Methods: As part of the study, the authors conducted a  survey of small music collectives’ ensemble leaders, which helped to reveal the formation of the collective musical experience of the learners in creative activities, developing both socialization and cooperation skills, as well as promoting the possibilities of self-realization of the adolescents. Keywords: collective music making, instrument playing, cooperation skills, self-realization. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.34 Irēna Andersone, Guntars Bernāts Collective Music Making as a Developer ... 474 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Introduction In a  democratic society a  human being is considered a  unique value, living and learning among other human beings. The  modern age of developed technologies forces the human being to sit in front of a computer, but it is the practical activities that allow the young people to learn something useful in their lives purposefully, deliberately and on their own accord, so they could express and realise themselves. Collaboration skills are among the most essential life skills, necessary to prepare the pupils for their life activities. The main idea of Humanistic interaction is to get the student interested, provided him or her with an opportunity to discover and develop their own abilities, to continue to work independently, thus helping the student to develop, development being one of the main components of life activity. It is aimed at the development of initiative, self-control and self-evaluation. Successful formation of the students’ social skills is achieved in the co-operation between the students and adults, as well as between the students themselves – in a socialisation process: mutually perceiving, evaluating and influencing (Gudjons, 1998; Matusov, 2009). A  person cannot learn social skills without interaction with other people. Studying the holistic development of the adolescent personality, one must understand the holistic approach in music pedagogy. Maruta Sīle connects the ancient Greek philosophy term “wholeness” to music in the following way: the human being develops and retains the unity of soul, mind and emotions in balance, for a  harmonious personality, using the characterising elements of musical rhythm, melody, mode, harmony and other entities characterising the wholeness of music. This unites an individual with the wholeness of society, and then further with the united rhythm, harmony, order, spirituality and wholeness of the cosmos (Sīle, 2000). Historical research of wholeness theory in the science of pedagogy revealed ideas that were accepted as the basis of the developed holistic approach from the perspective of the pedagogy of science: • the holistic approach in the personality study assumes that elements of complex phenomena are connected and indivisible, and that changes in one element initiate changes in the rest of the whole. This requires the study of the whole instead of separate variables. • complex pedagogic phenomena must be grasped as a whole; • wholeness is something more than just the sum of its elements (Sīle, 2000). Creation, performance and listening to music is made possible by musical experience. Although music is only perceived through sound and 475Irēna Andersone, Guntars Bernāts. Collective Music Making as a Developer ... listening, this experience is universal, as the whole of the human being is involved in it  – the body, emotions, mind and soul are involved in its creation. Creation of musical experience through repeated listening to the music alone is insufficient, as full-fledged musical experience is connected with practical activity creating and performing music. Humans since the most ancient times have been using different instruments for the creation, preservation and handing down of musical experience, like  – human voice, percussion, string, wind and  – the much later created  – keyboard instruments. Human life and the existence of musical culture today cannot even be imagined. For the instruments in a  musical group to sound nice and full, it takes the long-term and patient joint work of both the student and the teacher. A musical group is a unique collective in which various individuals are connected in different contexts (Lim, 2014). Entering a  school, children and teachers may encounter several problems: • the children can display different levels of readiness for school, • lack of preparedness for the new psychological role, • differing motivation to attend school, • different levels of skills, abilities and also talent. One of the forms of learning that definitely unites the children, is collective music-making, as the students operate as a united team, for one purpose, allowing them to get better acquainted and become more open. The  ability to establish and maintain relationships with people not only enriches one’s life, it is also a  basic part of self-respect (Smita & Strika, 1998). While participating in a  musical group, everyone also shows himself/herself as an individual (Murnighan, 1991). The topicality of the research The topicality of the present study is indicated by a question current in pedagogy and concerning the promotion of self-realisation and development of creativity of the adolescents, as only such a personality will be capable of competing successfully in the labour market, generating and offering unique ideas. In order for an adolescent to develop as a competitive personality in the future labour market, it is important to establish the necessary personality traits that are stimulated by the process of creative education: • a unique personality; • a generally developed personality; • a personality that can represent one’s own new ideas; • a competitive personality; • a successful personality. 476 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The age of adolescence has always been a difficult one. Because of the technological revolution and digital opportunities, the adolescents spend more and more time in the virtual world, adapting to other adolescents, replicating the actions of the idols of their age, adopting their behaviour, values and way of thinking, thus abandoning the originality of their own personality (Geidžs & Berliners, 1999). With all this taken into account, it is of great importance for the education of the adolescents to be the one ensuring that the adolescents preserve their uniqueness. At the same time both practice and research shows that promotion of adolescents’ motivation, their encouragement on the path to developing their musical interests is a real challenge for the leader of a musical group, as collective music-making requires perseverance, strict discipline, but is also forming the sense of social responsibility within the group. Collective music-making has a beneficial effect on the improvement of general social skills and co-existence, it raises the motivation for learning and attending extra-curricular activities, as it improves attention, organisation and self- analysis (Bonshor, 2018). Playing musical instruments is the activity that offers the best opportunity for the development of artistic skills, emotionality and understanding of musical values a student has, simultaneously encouraging the development of musical intellect. The research by education researchers has proven that learning to sing, reading scores and playing an instrument can be a teaching method by which not only the students are introduced to the  world of art, but it also develops those skills and potencies of the students that are useful for all other subjects, like mathematics or languages, thus providing an opportunity for the student’s self-realisation (Fišers, 2005). The teachers at Latvian professional music schools employ various exercise systems and methodological techniques in order to help the students to improve the technical elements of instrument playing and to acquaint them with the rich musical culture. In creatively organised study, students acquire knowledge about the expression of the musical language, stylistic, genre-specific and other characteristics of a musical piece. Collective music-making is an important part of music education, influencing the comprehensive development of an adolescent’s personality – it develops intellectual abilities and those of perception, emotional responsiveness to music, artistic fantasy and creativity that are substantial parts of any innovative activity of the 21st century (Kumik, 2017). This leads to the conclusion that both the individual and collective music- making skills are developed. This statement is supported by the achievements of the most talented students of the Latvian music schools at local and international music competitions and festivals. There are many examples, it is important to 477Irēna Andersone, Guntars Bernāts. Collective Music Making as a Developer ... highlight just a few: Ēriks Katkevičs, a learner of the 8th violin class at the Jurmala Music School, won the 1st prize in the International Cote d’Azur Piano Competition of the Conservatory of Nice (France) (21–27 October 2018). Eduards Levša won Grand Prix at 36th Pärnu Accordion Music Festival in Pärnu (Estonia) on October 26, 2018, Sandija Leja won 1st prize at XIX Concours International de Piano in Paris, France, April 22–23, 2019 (Jūrmalas mūzikas vidusskola (Jurmala Secondary Music School), 2019). But Latvia stands out among other countries – and can pride itself on the fact – that whatever rapid social economic changes have affected the country during the recent decades, it has been able to retain professionally- oriented musical education. There are 143 music and art schools in Latvia founded by municipalities and partly supported by the state. Foreign visitors and experts have repeatedly pointed out the phenomenon of music and art education in Latvia, not only the large number of children’s music and art schools, but also musical education in schools (Matisāne, 2011). Its importance for the development of professional musicians and music teachers is undeniable, but its greatest contribution is the preservation and development of the values of Latvian cultural life, by raising educated music lovers  – people that love music and are interested in it, attend concerts and consider music-making in amateur groups an integral part of their lives. Therefore the main task for a  teacher of collective music-making is to raise the students’ motivation for participating in the field of music. Achieving this goal is getting increasingly harder in our times, as the changes in society also change the modern child’s value orientation, the range of his/her needs and interests grows wider and more varied, changing the sphere of motivation along with it. Government support for the professionally-oriented music education has currently decreased. Changes in society and students make demands on the teacher for not only a  high level of professional competence and knowledge, but also one’s own view of the world, individual stance and constant learning. Collective music-making (playing an instrument or singing) is the activity offering the best opportunity for development of adolescents’ skills. The  adolescents joining groups form their personalities (Argyris, 1985; Garleja, 2003). Studying collective music-making, as the means of developing an adolescent’s personality as a  whole, lead to the conclusion that this development will only take place if a number of factors interact together. Such development of adolescents’ personalities as a  whole is conditioned by the interest of the adolescents, their collaboration skills, socialisation, emotionality, self-analysis, self-realisation, cognitive abilities, their 478 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 understanding of music, artistic abilities and their skills of collective music- making, i.e. the skills of either singing or playing an instrument (see Figure). Figure. Collective music making as an activity developing the adolescents’ personality as a whole (authors’ developed concept) Collective music making – in the context of the reform of the Latvian education system As the result of the reduction in funding (government grants for institutions of cultural education) in 2009 a  reform of cultural education was initiated, applying adjustments to the content of professionally oriented education programmes (Latvijas Republikas Kultūras ministrija (Ministry of Culture of Latvia Republic), 2011) and in 2010 a  2 flow education programme model for musical schools was introduced, with a basic programme and an extended programme (Kultūrizglītības attīstība (Development of cultural education) 2009-2012, 2010) in which emphasis is placed on collective music-making and the proportion of theoretical and individual lessons is reduced. Along with that the children, adolescents and youth are encouraged to participate in different music groups– choirs, vocal groups, orchestras, creatively forming the music-making process of the group, thus resulting in the following benefits for the students: • substantially promoted development of musical, intellectual and emotional abilities; • significantly promoted acquisition of experience in collective and individual musical activity; • developed creative abilities in music; 479Irēna Andersone, Guntars Bernāts. Collective Music Making as a Developer ... • developed ability to orientate oneself in musical genres and styles (Latvijas Nacionālais kultūras centrs (Latvian National Center for Culture), 2011). The results of the survey of the leaders of Latvian collective music-making – the teachers Studying the theoretical ideas in the field of music teaching and performing their analysis, within the framework of the present study the authors created a  questionnaire, so as to get insight from the group leaders, regarding the development of their pupils’ collective music-making experience, development of socialisation and collaboration skills, and the promotion of opportunities for self-realisation. 40 leaders of different music groups (choirs, orchestras, chamber ensembles and vocal groups) participated in this survey, of those 4 were leaders of orchestras, 9 were leaders of vocal groups, 11 were leaders of choirs and 16 – leaders of instrumental ensembles. Respondents were selected to represent almost all types of collective music groups in Latvia. The  average experience of pedagogy work  – 14 years (in the range of 1–40 years). Most of the participants (22 of those surveyed) lead collective music-making activities in professionally-oriented music schools  – 11 in specialist education and 7 in general education schools. The questions in the survey were mostly formulated in such a way that the respondents had the opportunity to respond in the affirmative or the negative, justifying their response. The question: “Do you support the current emphasis in Latvian professionally-oriented education on collective music-making and the increase in the number of lessons? Please, respond with either “Yes” or “No” and provide the reasoning behind your response!” was answered with “Yes” by 37 respondents, while three responded in the negative, objecting to the same payment for both the individual and group lesson, also stressing the need for a reasonable balance between individual and collective music- making lessons in the curriculum. The question “Is collective music-making the right form of activity for developing an adolescent’s personality as a  whole? Please, respond with either “Yes” or “No” and provide the reasoning behind your response!” received 35 affirmative responses, while two responded with “No”, and three more provided no answer to the question. The  respondents justified their responses by saying that socialisation and collaboration with other adolescents is fundamental to adolescents, therefore improved communication skills, a growth in discipline, and the promotion of general and musical skills are developed through collective music-making activities. 480 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 To the question “Which are the skills learned during collective music- making that promote the development of an adolescent’s personality? (Please, name at least 3)” most of the participants responded by emphasising the following: listening skills (14), collaboration skills (12) and the development of responsibility (12). The question “Do you believe that collective music-making activities promote the creative self-expression of adolescents? Please, respond with either “Yes” or “No” and provide the reasoning behind your response!” most of the teachers responded with “yes”, while there were two responses of “No”, one  – “do not know” and one  – “not in particular”. This shows that the group leaders do believe that collective music-making activities contribute to the creative self-expression of adolescents. The question “Which factors in the collective music-making process most help the development of adolescents’ socialisation skills?” received interesting, but extremely varied responses. Many respondents emphasised the importance of collaboration for the achievement of common goals (11 respondents), but the positive atmosphere in the rehearsal process was also nominated as important (9 respondents). And finally the question important in the context of the present study: “Are the socialisation skills necessary for playing in a group promoting the development of personality? Please, respond with either “Yes” or “No” and provide the reasoning behind your response!” nearly all respondents gave an affirmative answer, while only one was of the opinion that it cannot be judged that simply. Therefore this leads to the conclusion that collective music-making promotes the development of socialisation skills, which are important in the development of personality. The conclusions from the empirical study regarding the formation of responsibility are also important, as are those about the development of listening and collaboration skills in the process of collective music-making. The development of personality in the process of collective music-making was indicated by the responses with statements such as: “…the adolescents’ self-confidence grows, their communication improves, during the concerts they develop an increasing ability to control their emotions in the critical moments”. “… the adolescents become more responsible, diligent, independent, and by collaborating they learn to accept differing opinions”. Conclusions The survey resulted in the conclusion that it is particularly important to promote the formation of the students’ collective musical experience through creative activity, by developing both instrument skills, and 481Irēna Andersone, Guntars Bernāts. Collective Music Making as a Developer ... socialisation and collaboration skills. A  respondent who provided a  very comprehensive answer did so in the context of the present study: “…these are skills that should be transferred to everyday life in the relationship with society – to listen, avoid conflicts, to provide support.” Collective music-making can be considered as a means of developing an adolescent’s personality as a whole, if the adolescent has: • developed elements of singing and instrument playing skills; • a formed idea of the richness of musical culture; • knowledge of the means of expression of the musical language, stylistic, genre-specific and other characteristics of a musical piece; • developed general abilities  – perception and intellectual abilities, emotional responsiveness to music, creativity; • developed individual and collective music-making skills; • strengthened their sense of national and patriotic belonging. The carried out practical research proves the validity of the findings of well-known music scientists (Bonshor M., Lim M.C., Kumik E.) as well as the belief of the authors regarding the importance of the experience gained in the process of collective music making in the personality development of a teenager. References Argyris, C. (1985). Strategy, Chenge, and Defisive Routines. Boston: Pitman. Bonshor, M. (2018). The  Confident Choir: A  Handbook for Leaders of Group Singing. Lanham: Rowman&Littlefield. [e-book]. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.co.uk/ Confident-Choir-Michael-Bonshor/dp/153810279X. Garleja, R. (2003). Darbs, organizācija un psiholoģija (Work, organization and psychology). Rīga: Raka. Geidžs, N. L., & Berliners, D. C. (1999). Pedagoģiskā psiholoģija (Educational psychology). Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC. Gudjons, H. (1998) Pedagoģijas pamatatziņas (Basic principles in pedagogy). Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC. Fišers, R. (2005). Mācīsim bērniem mācīties (Let’s teach children to learn). Rīga: RaKa. Jūrmalas mūzikas vidusskola (Jurmala Secondary Music School) (2019). Apsveicam audzēkņus ar panākumiem konkursos (Congratulations to the learners on their success in competitions). Retrieved from https://muzikasskola.jurmala.lv/2018/12/14/ apsveicam-audzeknus-ar-panakumiem-konkursos-2/. Kultūrizglītības attīstība 2009–2012 (Development of cultural education 2009–2012) (2010). Retrieved from http://tms.lv/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/KI_reforma.pdf. Kumik, E. (2017). Ensemble Music-Making as an Important Element of a Young Musician’s Training. Daugulis, Ē. (Eds.) Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable 1 (9), Scientific Paper. Daugavpils: Daugavpils University Academic Press Saule, p. 110–115. 482 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Latvijas Nacionālais kultūras centrs. (Latvian National Center for Culture) (2011). Daudzveidīgas mācību metodes un mācību priekšmetu programmu izveides metodika mūzikas profesionālās ievirzes izglītībā. 1.1. Koncepcija un tās realizācija metodiskajā materiālā. Retrieved from https://www.lnkc.gov.lv/nozares/kulturizglitiba/metodiskie- materiali-muzikas-izglitiba/. Latvijas Republikas Kultūras ministrija (Ministry of Culture of Latvia Republic). Gada publiskais pārskats (Annual Public Report) 2010 (2011). Retrieved from https://www. km.gov.lv/uploads/ckeditor/files/parskati files/KM_PARSKATS2010_01_07_2011.pdf. Lim M. C. (2014). Inpursuit of harmony: The  social and organisational factors in a professional vocal ensemble. Psychology of Music, Vol. 42 (3), 307–324. Matisāne, I. (2011). Reforma tricina mūzikas un mākslas izglītības pamatus (The reform shakes the foundations of music and art education). Retrieved from https://lvportals. lv/viedokli/228320-reforma-tricina-muzikas-un-makslas-izglitibas-pamatus-2011. Matusov, E. (2009). Journey Into Dialogic Pedagogy. New York: Nova Science Publishers Inc. Murnighan, J. K., & Conlon, D. E. (1991). The dynamics of intense workgroups: A study of British stringquartets. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36 (2), 165–186. Sīle, M. (2000). Veseluma pieeja bērna attīstībā klavierspēles mācību procesā (A holistic approach to child development in the piano learning process). Rīga, LU. Promocijas darbs. Smita, K., & Strika, L. (1998). Mācīšanās traucējumi (Learning disabilities). Rīga: RaKa. 483Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TOWARDS A CONTEXT-SPECIFIC SCHOOL LEADERSHIP COMPETENCE FRAMEWORK: A CASE STUDY OF LATVIA Ilze Saleniece University of Latvia, Latvia Dace Namsone University of Latvia, Latvia Līga Čakāne University of Latvia, Latvia Anete Butkēviča University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The aim of the  study described in this research paper is to examine effective school leadership practices by applying topical research knowledge in the area to the current school leadership situation in Latvia. The  study design consists of two main stages – literature analysis, and the analysis of the Latvian context (analysis of 21 interview with school leaders, document and artefact analysis). As a  result, authors have arrived at conclusions about the  relevant context-specific aspects in regard to the  effective school leadership in Latvia.  Keywords: educational/school leadership, school leadership’s impact on student achievement, competence assessment and development. Introduction Latvia is undergoing a  nation-wide curriculum reform in general education, with a  focus on competency-based approach to learning and development of 21st century skills (Namsone, 2018). The  reform implementation will start in September 2020 in preschools, and September 2021 – in schools. The success of the reform implementation falls also on the shoulders of the school leadership. Fullan (2015) sees school principals as “change leaders”, and emphasizes their key role in school improvement and reform implementation. A  large body of research on school effectiveness and improvement highlights the  impact of school leadership https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.35 Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča Towards a Context- ... 484 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 on student achievement (Leithwood, 2006, 2008; Hallinger, 2011; Waters, Marzano, McNulty, 2003). Evidence shows that school leadership is second only to classroom teaching in terms of the  influence on student learning (Leithwood, Harris, Hopkins, 2008). In the context of the on-going educational reform, authors find it important to study the most significant school leadership practices that make a difference to student learning, with an aim to understand what “the right things to do” are to transition to the 21st century teaching and learning. Furthermore, the  research focuses on the  leadership practices that are significant and specific to the  local context, understanding that “the precise characteristics of [..] effective leadership [..] are context dependent” (Reynolds, Sammons, De Fraine, Van Damme, Townsend, Teddlie, Stringfield, 2014). Aim of the Study The purpose of the  research is to arrive at the  local context specific framework of school leadership practices which are significant in the context of student achievement. This will be achieved by looking into differences between the  leadership practice domains and dimensions described in the  research literature and the  practice of school leaders in Latvia. As a  result, the  school leadership framework that is usable in the  Latvian context will be created and described. This research sets the  ground for a  further work on the  development of a  conceptual framework of school leadership competence assessment in the Latvian context. To achieve the purpose, the following research questions are set: 1. What are significant school leadership practices described in literature, existing frameworks and normative documents? 2. How school leadership practices defined in research literature manifest in school practice in Latvia? Theoretical Framework To compare leadership practices described in the literature with practices of school leaders in Latvia, authors have chosen the  Framework of Key Leader Practices by Hitt and Tucker (2015) as the main reference point. This decision was based on the fact that this is a unified framework, developed by conducting a systematic review of 56 empirical research studies in the period from 2000 to 2014, and covering over 40 years of research on principal effectiveness and its relationship with student achievement. In addition to the  empirical research, it also integrates three other known frameworks. The strength of Hitt and Tucker’s framework lies also in the fact that it focuses on leadership practices rather than characteristics. That is important 485Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... for authors, considering the  future goal to develop a  working and local context specific school leadership competence assessment framework. To ensure the comprehensiveness of the framework, authors additionally looked at the  five other existing frameworks and guidelines describing impactful leadership practices: The  Ontario Leadership Framework (developed by Kenneth Leithwood, 2012), The  Australian Professional Standard for Principals and the  Leadership Profiles (2015), The  Wallace foundation Report (2013), The Framework of Reference by the European Qualification Network for Effective Leadership, (2011) and the  OECD’s Improving School Leadership  – Policy and Practice in OECD Countries (2008, 2010). The  summary of main domains or categories of various frameworks can be seen in the Table 1. To have an overarching and all-encompassing view on the  context of school leadership, as well as to gain greater understanding on the  ways how school leadership influences student learning, authors used Hallinger’s “Synthesized Model of Leadership for Learning” (2011), which is based on synthesis of 40 years of empirical leadership research. The added value of the model is that it organises various elements of “leadership for learning” in a  system, thus explaining connections and hierarchies between them. The model emphasises that school and leadership sits in a certain context. Firstly, it is internal/school-level context, and secondly it is external context (community, country, society-level). It also indicates three core areas of leadership – setting vision and goals, development and implementation of academic structures and processes, and building people capacity. These all are well reflected in the  frameworks described in the  Table 1. Another important conclusion provided by the Hallinger’s work is that the  impact of school leadership on student learning is mostly indirect, i.e. through systems, procedures, people and the environment. Methodology This is a qualitative research, and it can be described by the following consecutive phases  – review of the  literature and building of an in-depth understanding of key areas of school leadership practice, school visits to interview school leadership and collect relevant materials and artefacts, interview and artefact analysis, additional document analysis, final development of the adapted framework of school leadership practices. After the literature review, authors developed a set of interview questions, which matched the domains and dimensions of the chosen core framework by Hitt and Tucker (2015), and thus “the variables” of the interview were defined (Tuckman, 1972 in Cohen, Manion, Morrison, 2011). In total, 7 schools were visited and in each school three members of the leadership 486 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Ta bl e 1 . O ve rv ie w o f V ar io us F ra m ew or ks D es cr ib in g Im pa ct fu l Sc ho ol L ea de rs hi p P ra ct ic es K ey L ea de r P ra ct ic es to I nfl ue nc e St ud en t A ch ie ve m en t, H it t an d T uc ke r, 20 15 . T he O nt ar io L ea de rs hi p Fr am ew or k, L ei th w oo d, 20 12 . Fr am ew or k of R ef er - en ce b y th e  E ur op ea n Q ua li fi ca ti on N et w or k fo r E ff ec ti ve L ea de r- sh ip , 2 01 1. T he W al la ce f ou nd a- ti on R ep or t, 2 01 3. A us tr al ia n P ro fe ss io na l St an da rd f or P ri nc ip al s an d th e  Le ad er sh ip P ro fi le s, 2 01 5. O E C D , I m pr ov in g Sc ho ol L ea de rs hi p  – P ol ic y an d P ra ct ic e in O E C D C ou nt ri es , 20 08 , 2 01 0. 5 pr ac ti ce d om ai ns : - E st ab li sh in g an d co nv ey in g th e  vi - si on , - Fa ci li ta ti ng a  h ig h- qu al it y le ar ni ng ex pe ri en ce f or st ud en ts , - B ui ld in g pr of es - si on al c ap ac it y, - C re at in g a  su pp or t- iv e or ga ni za ti on f or le ar ni ng , - C on ne ct in g w it h ex te rn al p ar tn er s. 5 co re l ea de rs hi p ca - pa ci ti es : - Se tt in g go al s, - A li gn in g re so ur ce s w it h pr io ri ti es , - P ro m ot in g co ll ab or a- ti ve l ea rn in g cu lt ur es , - U si ng d at a, - E ng ag in g in c ou ra - ge ou s co nv er sa ti on s. 3 le ve ls o f pr ac ti ce s: sc ho ol -l ev el l ea d- er sh ip p ra ct ic es , sy st em -l ev el l ea de r- sh ip p ra ct ic es a nd pe rs on al -l ev el . 5 co re d om ai ns : - P ol it ic al a nd c ul tu r- al e xp ec ta ti on s an d th ei r tr an sl at io n in to i nt er na l m ea n- in g an d di re ct io n, - U nd er st an di ng a nd em po w er in g te ac h- er s an d ot he r st aff : - C ul tu ri ng a nd st ru ct ur in g sc ho ol s, - W or ki ng w it h pa rt - ne rs a nd t he  e xt er - na l en vi ro nm en t, - P er so na l de ve lo p- m en t an d gr ow th . 5 ke y pr ac ti ce s: - Sh ap in g a  vi si on o f ac ad em ic s uc ce ss fo r al l st ud en ts , - C re at in g a  cl im at e ho sp it ab le t o ed u- ca ti on , - C ul ti va ti ng l ea de r- sh ip i n ot he rs , - Im pr ov in g in st ru c- ti on , - M an ag in g pe op le , da ta a nd p ro ce ss es to f os te r sc ho ol im pr ov em en t. 3 fo cu se s: p ro fe ss io na l pr ac ti ce s, l ea de rs hi p re qu ir em en ts , l ea de r- sh ip e m ph as is . 5 pr of es si on al p ra ct ic es : - D ev el op in g se lf a nd ot he rs , - Le ad in g im pr ov e- m en t, i nn ov at io n an d ch an ge , - E ng ag in g an d w or k- in g w it h th e  co m m u- ni ty , - Le ad in g te ac hi ng a nd le ar ni ng , - Le ad in g th e  m an ag e- m en t of t he  s ch oo l. 4 ar ea s: - G oa l- se tt in g, a ss es s- m en t an d ac co un t- ab il it y, - St ra te gi c re so ur ce m an ag em en t, - Le ad er sh ip b ey on d th e  sc ho ol b or de rs , - Su pp or ti ng , e va lu - at in g an d de ve lo p- in g te ac he r qu al it y. 487Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... team were interviewed – the Head of the School and two Deputy Heads, thus in total 21 interview was conducted. The  type of the  interview was semi-structured. Although it had a  set of pre-determined questions, when appropriate, interviewer allowed new themes to be brought up. Each interview was conducted by two researchers. One of them was leading the interview by asking the questions, and the other was making notes and following whether all relevant questions have been asked. Selected schools for the research were all general education schools of Valmiera city, which is the 8th biggest city in Latvia, and is the economic, educational, cultural and administrative centre of the  Vidzeme region. Selected school sample represent a  moderate diversity of schools in terms of their size, student achievement, programmes, etc. The number of schools and the context of a specific city could be one of the limitations of the research. In addition to interviews, school teams participated in a  mapping exercise organised by the  research team – they were asked to mark and describe the  practice dimensions of the  Hitt and Tucker’s framework in the  context of their own practices. Also, researchers were observing the  school environment, and were taking pictures of the  learning and public spaces of the school to use them for later analysis. The interviews were analysed by identifying “natural units of meaning”, which later were classified and categorized in order to structure the outline of each interview (Cohen, Manion, Morrison, 2011). At the  final stage, the  overall conclusions and interpretations were made, specifically paying attention to the  themes that were occurring most frequently, themes that weren’t covered enough (i.e. practice dimensions that weren’t explored enough during the  interview, as well as during the mapping exercise), and themes that fell outside the defined “borders” of Hitt and Tucker’s framework. As a  result, all analysis were pulled together, and authors reviewed the  Hitt and Tucker’s framework and in a  group discussion agreed on the necessary adaptations to the Latvian context, considering the gathered data through the research. Apart from interview analysis, authors looked at relevant normative documents regulating both school assessment and the  new curriculum reform. Results The second column of Table 2 indicates the adaptations authors made, following the  outcomes of the  qualitative research. To show the  changes and aspects that are specific for the local context in contrast to the original framework, the respective text is bolded and underlined. 488 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 2. Two Frameworks: Hitt and Tucker’s Framework (2015) and The Adapted to the Latvian Context Version of the Hitt and Tucker’s Framework Hitt and Tucker’s Framework of Key Leader Practices to Influence Student Achievement. Domains and Dimensions. Hitt and Tucker’s Framework of Key Leader Practices to Influence Student Achievement, adapted to the Latvian context. Domains and Dimensions. 1. Establishing and conveying the vision. 1. Establishing and conveying the vision. • Creating, articulating and stewarding shared mission and vision. • Creating, articulating and stewarding shared mission and vision. • Implementing vision by setting goals and performance expectations. • Implementing vision by setting specific and learning-focused goals and performance expectations, performance measurement procedure and accountability. • Communicating broadly the state of the vision. • Communicating broadly and regularly the state of the vision. • Ensuring alignment between goals of the school, school leadership and each individual teacher. • Modelling aspirational and ethical practices. • Modelling aspirational and ethical practices. • Promoting use of data for continual improvement. Has been broadened and moved to the domain “Creating a supportive organization for learning”. • Tending to external accountability. • External contexts, as well as school’s local positioning and strengths are considered in building vision and goals. 2. Facilitating a high-quality learning experience for students. 2. Facilitating a high-quality learning experience for students. • Maintaining safety and orderliness. • Maintaining safety and orderliness. • Personalizing the environment to reflect students’ background. • Creating the environment to reflect students’ background and school as organization for learning. • Promoting wellbeing and inclusive education. • Developing and monitoring instructional program. • Developing and monitoring curriculum implementation. • Developing and monitoring teaching and learning (instructional program) that address needs and growth of every student. • Developing and monitoring assessment program. • Developing and monitoring assessment program. • Buffering staff from distractions. 489Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... 3. Building professional capacity. 3. Building professional capacity. • Selecting for the right fit. • Selection and retention of high quality teaching staff. • Providing opportunities to learn for whole faculty, including leader(s). • Building effective system for learning needs assessment and providing appropriate continuous learning opportunities for all staff, including leader(s). • Providing individualized consideration. • Providing individualized approach to performance management and learning and development. • Creating communities of practice. • Embedding systems for exchanging knowledge and learning, and ensuring learning’s transfer in practice. • Engendering responsibility for promoting learning. • Creating a culture of learning and development. • Supporting, buffering, and recognizing staff. • Demonstrating active position in supporting and recognizing staff. • Building trusting relationships. • Building trusting and cooperative relationships. 4. Creating a supportive organization for learning. 4. Creating a supportive organization for learning. • Maintaining ambitious and high expectations and standards. • Maintaining ambitious and high expectations and standards. • Acquiring and allocating resources strategically for mission and vision. • Acquiring, allocating and managing resources strategically in support of the school’s vision and goals. • Considering context to maximize organizational functioning. • Considering context to maximize organizational functioning. • Building collaborative processes for decision making. • Building collaborative processes for decision making and distributing leadership. • Sharing and distributing leadership. • Tending to and building on diversity. • Tending to and building on diversity. • Strengthening and optimizing school culture. • Strengthening and optimizing school culture and values. • Leading innovation and change. • Promoting use of data and building systems for evidence-based decision making and effective data management. 5. Connecting with external partners. 5. Building relationships with local community and external partners. • Building productive relationships with families and external partners in the community. • Building productive relationships with families and external partners in the community (NGOs, companies etc.). 490 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 • Engaging families and community in collaborative processes to strengthen student learning. • Engaging families and community in collaborative processes to support and strengthen student learning. • Anchoring schools in the community. • Anchoring schools in the community. • Partnership with local and national authorities and organizations/ institutions significant for school improvement (municipality, ministry, agencies, etc.). • Networking with other schools and organisations for learning at national, international level. Discussion The discussion is organised into sections according to the five domains of key leader practices identified in the systematic review by Hitt and Tucker (2015). Each section focuses on the  aspects that are critical and relevant for the Latvian context. The suggested changes in the original framework and local context specific adaptations are described and discussed. At the end of the chapter, the overall conclusions are drawn and further research ideas are presented. Establishing and conveying the vision Keeping in mind that the  overall aim of the  framework is to identify school leadership practices that are significant for school improvement and student achievement, it is crucial to underline the  need for goals of the  school to be focused on learning. Interviews indicate that goals that are set are not always clear and specific enough, as well as centred on student learning. Hallinger (2011) emphasises the essential role school leadership plays in directing and maintaining the focus of school’s vision and goals on learning. Considering that several research synthesis (Hallinger and Heck, 1996; Robinson et al., 2008) point out that vision and goals is the most important lever in hands of the leadership to influence student learning, authors add to the  framework a  new dimension “Ensuring alignment between goals of the  school, school leadership and each individual teacher”, thus highlighting school leadership’s role in building a coherent and hierarchical structure of goals within the organisation. Interviews provide an insight into importance of aligning the goals of school with those of leadership and each individual teacher. In several cases, members of leadership team gave different answers to the question about the goals of the school, their own goals and 491Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... goals for the  teaching staff, illustrating that there are inconsistencies in internal goal alignment. The  lack of clarity can negatively contribute to teacher motivation and commitment, and Leithwood and Jantzi (2006) emphasise that the motivation of school staff is particularly important for large-scale reforms to be successful. Furthermore, interviews suggest the  need for an active position of school leadership with regard to setting performance expectations and building and overseeing performance measurement. This goes in line with the  need for school to have an adequate capacity in data-based decision making, planning and data management in general. Interviews also show that school leaders are aware of external expectations and pressures, such as current curriculum reform and regulations defining changes regarding teaching and learning. They are also clear about their school’s strengths and unique position in the  local area. However, it can be concluded, that not always this useful knowledge on external and local contexts inform vision and goals that schools are setting and implementing. Authors see the need to strengthen this as one of the  significant practices of school leadership in Latvia, and emphasise the need for school leaders to be the mediators between the external and internal contexts, able to “translate external requirements into internal meaning” (Framework of Reference by the European Qualification Network for Effective Leadership, 2011). Facilitating a high-quality learning experience for students Considering the  significance of leadership practices related to high- quality learning experience for students, authors have suggested several adaptations. Firstly, authors have added a  dimension related to curriculum implementation. The on-going curriculum reform and respective changes in regulations foresee that schools have greater autonomy in the  way they plan the delivery of curriculum, and the learning content is not organized in subjects, as previously, but in broader learning areas. Thus, there is a  need for school level planning of subject teaching, taking into account school’s specific situation, needs, and resources, for example, what subjects each teacher is teaching. The organization and monitoring of this process falls under the  responsibility of school administration. In their research, Leithwood and Jantzi (2006) draw attention to the conclusion that school leadership has a  significant influence on teacher classroom practices, and the possibility of these practices to be altered. As regards assessment, the  curriculum reform has an emphasis on formative assessment and its effective implementation (Čakāne, 2018). As most interviews indicate, primarily the assessment program is understood 492 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 in the  context of summative assessment and results. There is a  need for the  development of systems and practices that promote effective use of formative assessment and diagnostic data, with an aim to better understand the  necessary improvements in teaching and learning, and thus helping students’ progress. In order to ensure successful reform implementation, it is highly important to set this as one of the key focus areas for school leadership. Interviews with school leaders lead to an understanding that teachers have comparatively many obligations and are involved in various activities besides their teaching, for example, they are organising and participating in various events. The  Ontario Leadership Framework under the  domain “Improving the  Instructional Program” has a  dimension “Buffering staff from distractions to their work”. Considering the local context and interview results, authors have included this dimension in the  adapted version of the  framework, thus signalling the  need for school leadership to enable teachers to have full focus on instruction, and address the role of leadership in buffering and protecting their staff from unnecessary bureaucratic and time-consuming activities that aren’t directly linked to their job and the high-quality learning and teaching. Taking into account the  OECD’s PISA 2015 results, illustrating challenges for Latvian schools with regard to students’ exposure to bullying and students’ sense of belonging at school, by perception of teacher support, authors have added to this domain of the  framework a  context- relevant dimension concerning school leadership’s practices to promotion of wellbeing and inclusive education. Furthermore, interviews indicate that there is a  crucial need for strengthening the  dimension of inclusive education and supporting learning and development of every child. In their answers about school’s success, several school leaders celebrate the  achievement of few top-performers instead of continuous growth of every student. Also, the  lack of knowledge and experience, as well as resources to deliver differentiated instruction and assessment is mentioned as one of the  areas for improvement. Research proves, however, that schools can improve student learning outcomes despite the various starting points, and that leadership through modelling central organizational processes plays a critical role in this regard (Hallinger, 2011). Field notes from school visits, photos taken at schools, as well as interviews suggest that some schools are using their physical environment more effectively than others to communicate that school has a  specific audience – young people and a specific goal – their learning. For example, some schools have an informal space for learning outside the  classroom, as well as space for resting and free time activities. The  equipment and furniture is suitable and comfortable for the  students. Also, authors 493Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... paid attention to how schools use their space outside the  classrooms to communicate students’ learning, i.e. how they are using walls, corridors, entrance area and any other public space school has. As a  result, the  respective dimension is paraphrased as “Creating the  environment to reflect students’ background and school as organization for learning”. It can be suggested that this contributes to students’ sense of belonging and thus their general wellbeing at the school. Building professional capacity Interviews suggest that there is a  lack of procedures on how learning needs are assessed and what the  role of the  leadership is in this regard. Overall, teachers are actively involved in various learning activities and trainings, however, in most of the  cases their learning is dependent on the  supply, i.e. what training is being offered, and it isn’t necessarily needs-driven approach. Following school leadership reflections on the comparatively low effectiveness of learning, authors have paraphrased the dimension, by emphasising that learning of the staff should be based on their actual and specific needs. This helps to design appropriate learning solutions for the professional capacity building of the staff. It is important to provide tailor-made and individualised professional development solutions, tackling the  exact areas for improvement. Furthermore, authors see that learning should be linked to the  individual performance goals of the staff, the necessary competence development, as well as monitoring of the progress. This is confirmed also by the Australian Professional Standard for Principals (2015). Although some of the  interviewed school leaders mentioned the practice of yearly performance assessment through school administration’s conversation with each individual teacher, there is a  need for a  more systemic and strategic development of performance management and planning of individual learning and development. Authors have broadened the  formulation of the  domain “Creating communities of practice”. In the  Latvian context the  “communities of practice” mostly manifest in so called methodological committees that are organized either around subjects or learning areas. Interview results show, however, that they are predominantly communities of information transfer and focus on effective information flow that is characteristic to hierarchical management structures. Considering that the curriculum reform focuses on “school as a learning organisation” (OECD, 2016), with highly collaborative, learning orientated culture and student learning and achievement as it’s primarily goal, there is a need for building systems and effective ways how staff learning and best practice exchange can add value and transform their performance. Also, authors want to stress the  importance of knowledge transfer into practice. As a result, the context-relevant dimension “Embedding 494 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 systems for exchanging knowledge and learning, and ensuring learning’s transfer in practice” has been developed. In their research on teacher effectiveness, Muijs, Kyriakides, Werf, Creemers, Timperley, Earl (2014) highlight the need for the “shifts in thinking”, and outline the need for “collaborative inquiry based on the principles of self-regulated learning” instead of simple information exchange. Creating a supportive organization for learning As regards leadership practices related to creating a  supportive organization for learning, apart from several rather minor additions and changes, authors have added two new dimensions to the  original framework – “Leading innovation and change” and “Promoting use of data and building systems for evidence-based decision making and effective data management”. Leading innovations and change is mentioned in the Australian Professional Standard for Principals, 2015, and authors find this as a relevant leadership practice, considering the ongoing curriculum reform. Most of the  interviews indicate leadership’s awareness of the necessity to manage change, however only few are taking an active leadership position in this regard. Such leadership practices as data usage in monitoring instruction and assessment and data-driven decision making and planning, are crucial for the  Latvian context and relevant for a  successful implementation of the  reform. Interviews indicate that leaders aren’t actively using data in their work, and many of them are at the  beginning level of the  data competency, i.e. either making decisions that aren’t based on data or aren’t able to make an effective use of and apply the available data (Cech, Spaulding, Cazier, 2018). Also, the  Australian Professional Standard for Principals (2015) highlights the need for school leadership to “use a range of data management methods and technologies to ensure that the school’s resources and staff are efficiently organised and managed to provide an effective and safe learning environment as well as value for money”. Building relationships with local community and external partners The original leadership framework domain “Connecting with external partners” has been broadened as well, and authors have included two significant partnership areas  – partnership with the  local and national authorities, and partnership with other schools. This goes in line with the  Framework of Reference by the  European Qualification Network for Effective Leadership (2011), and the  results of the  interviews. In their answers, school leaders emphasised the  significance of the  support from the  local authority (methodological and professional development support, resource-related support, strategic guidelines, funding, social 495Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... support programmes for certain groups of students, etc.). Also, various perceptions on relationship and power distribution between schools and the municipality were observed; some leaders believed they have an impact on the decisions taken at the municipality level and saw the municipality as their partner; at the same time some leaders believed that the municipality has the  power over their development and they have little or no impact on the decisions that are taken at the municipality level. Thus, the school- municipality relationship is a  specific and relevant aspect to consider in the Latvian context. In addition to the  interview analysis, the  analysis of documents was conducted. There are two main conclusions stemming from the  review of the documents. Firstly, the documents regulating the new curriculum and its implementation in general education are in line with the  leadership practices described in the framework and the adaptations that were made support the  reform implementation. Also, the  educational reform utilizes the  OECD’s concept “school as a  learning organization”, that aligns and covers almost all domains of the framework. As regards the  normative documents for school and leadership assessment, it can be concluded that key school leadership competences identified in the document overlap with the competences of the framework; however, they lack the  detail and angle specific for the  implementation of the reform goals. Furthermore, the assessment is conducted once every 6 years, and its primary aim is to assess staff’s suitability for the position. As regards the method of assessment, school leaders are assessed through an electronic performance assessment system that is based on their self- assessment, and thus the objectivity of the assessment can be questioned. The  framework that authors aim to develop has an emphasis on learning and development of the  leadership, and provision with clear instructions, examples and ways how they could improve their practices, in order to improve student achievement. Also, authors see the need for development of assessment methods of school leadership practices. Conclusion and Further Work Overall, it can be concluded that conducted interviews and study of relevant materials and artefacts, have provided authors an insight that the  existing frameworks, describing leadership practices that influence student achievement, should be adapted to the local realities. Furthermore, the  need for adaptations applies to all domains and levels of leadership practices. At the  same time, the  Hitt and Tucker’s framework served as a valid backbone structure to test and analyse educational contexts specific to Latvian schools. 496 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The key local specifics refer to the school leadership’s responsibility and action towards clear and learning-focused vision and goals; data-driven performance assessment and management systems; specific programs for learning, teaching and assessment with an aim to improve every student’s achievement; individualized learning and professional development systems; relationship building with student families, community and relevant external partners. Considering the current curriculum reform and the role leadership plays in influencing student achievement, this research provides a  useful road map for schools to become more effective. Further research can focus on detailed description of each dimension by identification of indicators that characterise the  lowest and the  highest value of the  dimension, i.e. two extreme values. Additionally, examples illustrating those values at various levels (the lowest, the highest) can be gathered from the local schools. As a result, the further steps would lead to the development of locally relevant School Leadership Competence Assessment Framework, helping schools to improve and manage their development. References Cech, Thomas G., Spaulding, Trent J., Cazier, Joseph A. (2018) “Data competence maturity: developing data-driven decision making”, Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, Vol. 11 Issue: 2, pp. 139–158, https://doi.org/10.1108/ JRIT-03-2018-0007. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2011). Research Methods in Education. 6th ed. New York: Routledge. Čakāne, L., (2018). Strenghtening of formatinve assessment in implementing deep learning. https://doi.org/10.22364/ml.2018.5 Fullan, M. (2015).  The new meaning of educational change. 5th edition. New York: Teachers College Press. Hallinger, Philip (2011) “Leadership for learning: lessons from 40 years of empirical research”, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 49 Issue: 2, pp. 125–142, https:// doi.org/10.1108/09578231111116699. Leithwood, Kenneth, Jantzi, Doris (2006) Transformational school leadership for large-scale reform: Effects on students, teachers, and their classroom practices, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17:2, 201–227, DOI: 10.1080/09243450600565829. Leithwood Kenneth, Harris, Alma, Hopkins, David (2008) Seven strong claims about successful school leadership, School Leadership and Management, 28:1, 27–42, DOI: 10.1080/13632430701800060. Muijs, Daniel, Kyriakides, Leonidas, Werf, Greetje van der, Creemers, Bert, Timperley, Helen & Earl, Lorna (2014) State of the  art  – teacher effectiveness and professional learning, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 25:2, 231–256, DOI: 10.1080/09243453.2014.885451. 497Ilze Saleniece, Dace Namsone, Līga Čakāne, Anete Butkēviča. Towards a Context- ... Namsone, D. (Scientific Editor) (2018). Learning for Competence (Mācīšanās lietpratībai). Riga: University of Latvia Academic Publishing. DOI: https://doi. org/10.22364/ml.2018. PISA 2015 Results (Volume III), Students’ Well-Being, OECD Publishing, 2017, https:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264273856-en. Reynolds, David, Sammons, Pam, De Fraine, Bieke, Van Damme, Jan, Townsend, Tony, Teddlie, Charles & Stringfield, Sam (2014) Educational effectiveness research (EER): a state-of-the-art review, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 25:2, 197–230, DOI: 10.1080/09243453.2014.885450. The Australian Professional Standard for Principals, 2015. Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. The Making of Leadership in Education: A European Qualification Network for Effective School Leadership, NLQ Hildesheim, 2011, http://www.leadership-in-education.eu/ fileadmin/Framework/EN_Framework.pdf. The Ontario Leadership Framework with a  Discussion of the  Research Foundations. 2012. The Institute for Education Leadership. The Wallace Foundation Report “The School Principal as Leader: Guiding Schools to Better Teaching and Learning”, 2013. The Wallace Foundation. Waters, Tim, Marzano, Robert J., McNulty, Brian (2003). Balanced Leadership: What 30 Years of Research Tells Us about the Effect of Leadership on Student Achievement. A Working Paper. Mid-Continent Regional Educational Lab., Aurora, CO. 21 p. 498 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITY AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM FOR SCHOOL STAFF DEVELOPMENT, SCHOOL CHANGE AND IMPROVEMENT Normunds Rečs Tukums Municipality of Latvia, Latvia Andrejs Geske University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT In the  context of the  general education content reform initiated in Latvia, which also provides change of learning approach, involvement in mutual professional learning activities at school has raised the  issue of teachers` professional growth. In the scientific literature the concept of the professional learning communities (PLC) is considered to be an effective organizational system for school staff development, school change and improvement on the  basis of two considerations. First of all it is presumed that teachers` professional knowledge is a part of their everyday experience and that this knowledge is best understood in a critical exchange of ideas with other teachers, who have the same experience. Secondly it is assumed that teachers who are actively involved in the  PLCs will be able to increase their professional knowledge and competence, thus contributing to students` learning and their learning outcomes. The main goal of the  research is to find out whether and to what extent teachers in the  Latvian general education institutions take part in the  PLCs. The article discusses theories of the concept of PLC and analyses the results of 489 teacher surveys. The results of empirical research do not show significant differences in the mean values of the PLC scales in primary and secondary schools. The data shows a very significant difference in the average values of the PLC scales in schools of the same level of education. Keywords: general education, professional collaboration of teachers, professional learning communities, school leadership. Introduction Student learning outcomes depend to a  large extent on the motivation and performance of each individual teacher in the  classroom. Traditional teaching at school is practiced as the “solo art” of each individual teacher. The teaching autonomy of a teacher in many places is still considered to be https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.36 Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske The Professional Learning Community ... 499Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske. The Professional Learning Community ... untouchable, and the intervention is sharply at odds with existing practices (Pont et al., 2008). However the  concept of the  professional learning community (PLC) in school management and the studies over the last two decades give new perspectives on the professional development of teachers. Teaching in the  classroom is based on the  practical knowledge of teachers (Van Driel et al., 2001). The  practical knowledge of teachers is formed by working at their school, combining experimental knowledge, formal knowledge and personal beliefs. Consequently many teachers` beliefs and practical knowledge of teaching are limited to their personal experience by working at school (Namsone et al., 2016). Traditional professional development models, on the  other hand, aim to provide teachers with knowledge and skills needed to become “better” educators. These models are usually based on the  presumption that the  purpose of the  professional development is to present teachers with “knowledge for practice”, i.e., that the  formal professional development activities are based on the assumption that knowledge and competence are best developed by university researchers outside the day-to-day pedagogical work and that by participating in formal processional development activity teachers acquire and apply this knowledge in their professional work in the  classroom. In addition, the  knowledge provided is generally recommended as a “recipe for better teaching” (Vescio et al., 2008). In order to effectively improve the  professional development of teachers, since the  90`s of the  XX century the  emphasis of teacher professional development has gradually shifted from formal improvement of qualification in teacher professional development programmes to teacher cooperation in the  PLCs, where teachers learn from each other within their schools (OECD, 2016). The  researchers even suggest that the  term “professional development” should be replaced with the term “professional learning” (Timperley et al., 2007; Easton, 2008; Stoll et al., 2012; Kools, & Stoll, 2016; Schleicher, 2016). Professional learning between teachers enables them to share experience and deepen their knowledge of theoretical guidelines, methods and processes for teaching and learning, and to gain approval for their professional practices on the  basis of the  analysis of student achievements and other evidence of successful change. Despite these reasonable arguments, international research has shown that there still are a  large proportion of teachers who have not participated in such professional development forms as mutual learning, joint teaching or involvement in joint professional development activities (OECD, 2014). This situation could be explained by the  fact that teachers traditionally practice teaching as solo art individually and interference in the  teaching autonomy of teachers is in contradiction with the  existing practice (Pont et al., 2008). 500 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 To change this situation, teachers should engage in a mutual exchange of experience at the PLCs in their school, analysing and reflecting realistic pedagogical challenges that would allow teachers to learn different kinds of experience, participate in discussions, exchange views, analyse and reflect on the teaching of their and their colleagues (Namsone et al., 2016). This is particularly relevant in the context of the general education content reform launched in Latvia, which also provides for a change in the teaching approach. The introduction of the new learning content and teaching approach needs to strengthen and develop cooperation between teachers at school level in the planning and implementation of the  teaching and educational process, in order to harmonise content issues and improve curricula to regularly analyse student learning achievements and find the best solutions for raising the  educational outcomes of each student, so that teachers can improve teaching and share good pedagogical practices with each other. The main aim of the research is to find out whether and to what extent teachers in the Latvian general education institutions take part in the PLCs. A theoretical analysis of the  scientific literature was done within the  research. Teacher survey made by the  authors has been used as a measuring instrument for carrying out an empirical research. The study analysed the survey data of 489 teachers. Professional Learning Community Studies carried out in the  recent decades have been based on an organisational approach to promoting the professional growth of teachers focusing on the development of the PLC at school (see, e.g., Louis et al., 1996; Hord, 1997; Bolam et al., 2005; Timperley et al., 2007; Vieluf et al., 2012; OECD, 2016; Schleicher, 2016). According to the  definition provided by the  OECD researchers, the  PLC is an inclusive and mutually supportive group of teachers with a collaborative, reflective and growth-oriented approach to study and learn more about their professional practice, with the main purpose to improve the  learning of all students (Kools & Stoll, 2016). The  PLC is composed of joint purpose and task-driven professionals, who are constantly gaining new knowledge through interacting with each other and trying to improve their pedagogical practices (Hord, 1997; Louis et al., 1996). The importance of the  concept of the PLC in the  context of school in the scientific literature is based on two considerations: • first of all, it is presumed that the professional knowledge of teachers is part of their day-to-day experience and that this knowledge is best understood in a critical exchange of ideas with other teachers, who have the same experience; 501Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske. The Professional Learning Community ... • secondly, it is assumed that teachers who are actively involved in the  PLCs will be able to increase their professional knowledge and competence, thus contributing to students` learning and their learning outcomes (Vescio et al., 2008; OECD, 2016). The empirical studies also show a  positive link between the  development of the  PLCs in schools and their student achievements (Stoll et al., 2006; Lomos et al., 2011). The concept of the PLC includes three important elements (Bolam et al., 2005; Stoll & Louis, 2007; Hord & Hirsch, 2008; Verbiest, 2011): • the professionalism of teachers, based on their knowledge and shared responsibility; • the mutual learning of teachers within the  school, through critical evaluation and self-reflection, with the  main purpose to improve their professionalism; • the community as an indicator of the  quality of the  relationship between teachers, which makes mutual learning and growth possible. The main focus of the concept of the PLC is the focus on the learning of each student; therefore, the involvement of teachers in the cooperation and their activities under the concept of the PLC is fundamentally different from the traditional approach of the activities of teachers, who are not active in the PLC at school (InPraxis Group Inc., 2006; Sigurdardóttir, 2010). These differences are described in Table 1. Table 1. Differences between traditional approach and the approach of the PLC (InPraxis Group Inc., 2006) In the traditional approach teachers … In the approach of the PLCs, teachers … • focus primarily on teaching • focus primarily on each student`s learning • are isolated from one another, the opportunities to cooperate on strategies to improve student learning are limited • work in cooperation with other teachers; feel collectively responsible for the learning and growth of all school teachers and students • teach according to a set of externally fixed curricular standards that remain constant; decide by themselves what to teach • see students` learning as an ongoing process; jointly adjust the curriculum to the  learning needs of the students • are given little or no time to work in cooperation with colleagues • have structured time to observe and reflect on each other work and serve as critical friends in support of each other • teach students according to their individual understanding of teaching styles and techniques • build an understanding of each other’s style and technique so they can learn from one another and complement each other work 502 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The concept of the  PLC shifts from the  traditional “teacher-oriented” approach to “student-centred” approach, where teachers work together and cooperate by focusing on a  joint mission and building capacity, identify gaps in teaching and learning and develop effective pedagogical practices to ensure the needs of all students (Darling-Hammond, 1996). Focus on professional learning communities in the  school setting has resulted in a  redefining of the  teacher`s role. The  teacher is no longer a  passive instructor, who simply transfers knowledge to the  student, but an active agent of change, who leads the  learning of a  student (Cowan, 2003). When involving in the  PLC teachers become empowered as they tackle initiatives and take risks, accept leadership responsibilities, and feel confident as professionals (Slater, 2008). Researchers point out that teacher cooperation itself does not mean full functioning of the PLC. It is essential whether teacher cooperation in the PLC focuses on everyday work in the classroom with the main purpose to improve the  learning of every student. The  effectiveness of the  PLC and the  increase of the  capacity of each teacher in the  PLC depend on a  large extent of collective self-analysis and feedback, the  reduction of teacher isolation, the  reflection of current teaching practices and shared responsibility for all students` learning. Thus, the student success is the only institutional priority of school as an organisation and its attention is shifted from the  excuses and finding perpetrators to an approach focusing on the student individual needs (Du Four et al., 2006). Studies (Hord, 1997; Vescio et al., 2008; Lomos et al., 2011) show positive effects of the  PLC on both teachers and students. In the  case of teachers, the PLC reduces teacher isolation; reinforces the commitment to the  school mission and to the achievement of school objectives; increases collective responsibility for learning outcomes; stimulates deeper insight into their daily practices and critical analysis; activates mutual learning, builds better teaching practices and creates new knowledge and understanding of teaching and learning; reinforces awareness of students and their individual needs and the role of the teacher to help all students to achieve performance- relevant results; enables teachers to make a significant progress in adapting teaching to students` individual needs more quickly than traditional schools; ensuring teacher awareness; promoting professional renewal of teachers and the  capacity to inspire and motivate students; promotes job satisfaction; stimulates commitment to make significant and lasting progress and change (Hord, 1997). The positive effects of the PLC teachers on students are evidenced by a  decrease in the  number of early school leavers and second-year students; a  reduction in delays; higher school outcomes than in traditional schools; lower gaps in learning achievements among students at different capacity levels (Hord, 1997). 503Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske. The Professional Learning Community ... In view of the complexity of the PLC, this study is based on the model developed by the  Canadian scientists on the  PLC as a  multilevel multi- dimensional concept (Mitchell & Sackney, 2011; Sleegers et al., 2013). That model reflects the  PLC at three levels - the  individual level of the PLC members, interpersonal level of the PLC members and the level of cooperation between the PLC members and school as an organisation. In each of these levels, a number of interrelated groups of characteristics or dimensions to describe the PLC are identified. The involvement in the PLC at individual level is characterised by active and reflective development of new professional knowledge of the  member and the  use of the  good practice acquired by the  participation in the  PLC. The  development of the PLC at interpersonal level is characterised by the dimensions of joint understanding of teachers on school mission, objectives, mutual cooperation between teachers, sharing professional knowledge and personal practices acquired at individual level, sharing responsibility for students` learning. Schools as the organizational level include the provision of such supportive resources necessary for the  operation of the  PLC as available time, information and materials, reflection of the support of school management for the professional cooperation of teachers, as well as the joint commitment of teachers to promote the success of each student in training. In this research the  authors focus on three interpersonal and two organizational levels that describe the formation of the organizational level PLC as variable scales, which content is described in Table 2. Methodology Teacher survey created by the authors of the research on the functioning of the PLC at school has been used as a measuring instrument for carrying out an empirical reserach. The 40 statements were selected from surveys of British (Bolam et  al., 2005) and Belgian (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016) scientists based on the content of the PLC within this research. The statements of the  survey are grouped in five dimension scales of the PLC. The Likert scale was used in the  survey. The  internal consistency of the  survey variable scales has been verified by Cronbach alpha-factor. An overview of the number of teacher survey statements and Cronbach`s alpha-factor is given in Table 2 on each of the scales. The teacher survey was conducted in school year 2017/2018 in 25  schools of the  municipalities in the  western part of Latvia. A  total of 580  paper surveys were distributed, of which 489 or 84.3% were returned. Of the total, 306 teachers (63% of respondents) were surveyed in 504 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 11 secondary schools and 183 teachers (37% of respondents) in 14 primary schools. Table 2. The Scales of the PLC Scales Number of items Cronbach α Content of the dimensions of the PLC Interpersonal level Shared sense of purpose and values 6 .80 Reflects the degree of the agreement between teachers on school mission, common objectives and operational principles Collective focus on students` learning 10 .71 Describes a shared commitment of teachers to improve student learning in a long term Sharing personal practice 7 .70 Reflects discussions on teaching methods, exchange of the ideas and problem- solving advices between teachers based on the classroom observations by colleagues Organizational level Collective responsibility for students’ learning 10 .83 Describes the commitment of teachers to promote the intellectual growth and development of each student and to achieve the success of students in learning Supporting conditions 7 .68 Describes the support of the administration to teacher professional cooperation and growth Of the  total number of respondents, 445 (91%) were women, while 44 (9%) were men. The average age of the teachers involved in the study was 47.9 years (between 21 and 74 years). The gender profile of the sample respondents is in line with the  conclusions of the  OECD TALIS 2018 study on the gender ratio of Latvian teachers (89% female and 11% male) (OECD, 2019). On average, the teachers involved in the study were slightly younger compared to the  results of OECD TALIS 2018, which shows that 51% of Latvian teachers are older than 50 years (OECD, 2019). The average duration of the  total pedagogical length of service of the teachers involved in the study was 24.3 years (between 1 and 51 years). The smallest number of teachers participating in the  survey in one of the  schools was eight teachers, and the  largest was 44 teachers. An average number of teachers surveyed in one school  – 19.6. On average, 23.5  teachers were surveyed in one secondary school and 15 teachers in primary schools. All the schools involved in the research were general education primary or secondary schools funded by municipalities. The  research did not 505Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske. The Professional Learning Community ... involve gymnasiums, private schools, boarding schools, special schools or vocational orientation schools. In all schools in which the study was carried out, the training took place in Latvian. Results The survey data was processed using the SPSS program. The descriptive statistical methods (frequencies, weights) were used for the analysis of data to give an overall picture of the schools involved in the survey, the teachers surveyed and their answers. The descriptive statistics compiled in Table 3 do not show any significant difference in the mean values of the PLC scales in primary and secondary schools. Only in the  PLC scale “Sharing personal practice”, secondary school teachers demonstrate more frequent involvement in the discussions of teaching methods and in exchange of the  ideas and problem-solving advices among teachers than primary school teachers. Table 3. Mean values and standard deviation (δ) of the PLC scales for primary and secondary schools Scales* Primary school teachers (N=183) Secondary school teachers (N=306) (δ) xmin xmax (δ) xmin xmax Shared sense of purpose and values 10.06 (1.79) 5.97 13.08 9.96 (2.12) 3.84 13.08 Collective focus on students` learning 10.08 (1.93) 5.30 14.24 9.95 (2.04) 3.18 14.24 Sharing personal practice 9.67 (2.25) 4.38 23.13 10.19 (1.81) 4.70 15.19 Collective responsibility for students’ learning 10.13 (2.13) 4.84 15.69 9.92 (1.92) 3.97 15.69 Supporting conditions 10.04 (1.72) 4.53 14.80 9.97 (2.15) 3.96 16.51 N (teachers) = 489 and N (schools) = 25 * Scales are recalibrated with an average of 10 and standard deviation 2 Table 4 summarises the mean values of the PLC scales for each school involved in the  research. The  data presented in Table 4 shows a  very significant difference in the  average values of the  PLC scales in schools of the  same level of education. For example, secondary schools “K” and “L” have significantly lower average values on several PLC scales. It is possible that the differences identified in the study between the PLC scales in schools of the same level of education can be explained by the fact that school principals do not have sufficient understanding of the importance of the PLC in promoting the professional development of teachers and that it 506 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 is not self-evident for teachers to cooperate with each other in their schools and that it is not easy to break traditional views of teachers as firmly autonomous professionals. Table 4. Mean values of the PLC scales in participating schools Sc ho ol ty pe Sc ho ol Mean values* and standard deviation (δ) of the PLC scales Shared sense of purpose and values Collective focus on students` learning Sharing personal practice Collective re- sponsibility for students’ learning Supporting conditions Se co nd ar y sc ho ol A 9.59 (2.10) 9.99 (2.14) 10.79 (1.80) 10.23 (2.25) 10.67 (1.60) B 9.76 (1.75) 9.82 (1.83) 10.33 (1.30) 9.87 (1.92) 9.76 (2.24) C 9.79 (1.89) 9.61 (2.23) 10.78 (1.39) 9.96 (1.23) 9.53 (1.68) D 10.28 (1.76) 9.57 (2.29) 10.66 (1.79) 10.27 (1.93) 10.19 (1.77) E 11.68 (1.07) 11.39 (1.45) 10.84 (1.40) 9.86 (2.02) 11.97 (1.30) F 11.12 (1.85) 10.50 (2.21) 9.36 (1.68) 9.45 (2.07) 10.76 (1.99) G 10.64 (1.20) 10.35 (1.48) 9.29 (1.79) 8.88 (1.70) 9.22 (1.92) H 9.48 (2.48) 9.45 (2.03) 10.90 (1.83) 10.27 (1.72) 10.06 (1.95) I 11.17 (1.24) 10.33 (1.84) 10.40 (1.66) 10.35 (1.94) 10.39 (1.80) J 9.67 (2.05) 9.89 (2.25) 9.40 (1.56) 9.77 (1.28) 9.87 (1.96) K 7.88 (1.91) 8.64 (1.02) 10.14 (2.33) 10.04 (2.34) 7.02 (2.04) L 7.06 (2.31) 8.74 (2.37) 8.91 (2.44) 9.91 (1.87) 7.81 (2.27) M 9.52 (2.63) 10.05 (2.06) 9.16 (1.64) 10.32 (1.89) 10.08 (2.04) P ri m ar y sc ho ol N 10.47 (1.90) 10.21 (1.94) 9.61 (1.92) 10.12 (2.10) 10.31 (1.79) O 10.11 (1.85) 10.26 (1.83) 9.99 (2.02) 9.72 (2.18) 9.99 (1.52) P 9.61 (2.24) 9.71 (2.56) 8.93 (2.13) 9.84 (2.39) 9.71 (2.19) R 9.98 (1.77) 10.03 (1.98) 10.22 (1.81) 10.28 (2.04) 9.33 (1.55) S 10.83 (1.21) 11.93 (1.76) 12.12 (3.97) 11.06 (2.05) 10.95 (1.82) T 10.94 (1.27) 9.09 (1.12) 7.21 (1.71) 8.40 (2.15) 9.36 (0.97) U 10.56 (1.00) 10.35 (1.73) 9.98 (1.32) 11.29 (1.31) 11.38 (0.81) V 11.06 (1.54) 11.05 (1.66) 9.65 (1.84) 11.28 (1.27) 10.33 (1.21) W 9.29 (1.23) 10.34 (1.58) 10.21 (2.59) 10.59 (2.31) 9.54 (1.82) X 8.69 (1.78) 9.16 (2.07) 8.49 (1.89) 9.20 (2.39) 9.19 (1.91) Y 9.32 (0.95) 8.80 (1.10) 10.06 (1.45) 9.19 (1.65) 10.00 (1.55) Z 9.15 (2.09) 9.66 (0.78) 10.06 (1.21) 11.26 (1.19) 10.31 (1.81) N (teachers) = 489 and N (schools) = 25 * Scales are recalibrated with an average of 10 and standard deviation 2 507Normunds Rečs, Andrejs Geske. The Professional Learning Community ... Conclusions The results of an empirical research do not show significant differences in the mean values of the PLC scales in primary and secondary schools. The very significant difference in the average values of the PLC scales in schools of the  same level of education is explained based on two considerations. First of all, not all principals of the  schools involved in the research understood the importance of teacher-mutual cooperation and learning for PLC. Secondly, it is not self-evident for teachers to cooperate in their school and to break the  idea of teachers as firmly autonomous professionals in their classroom. The results of the  study are likely to reaffirm the  conclusion that it is not easy for teachers to deviate from traditional professional autonomy and actively engage in professional cooperation and learning activities at their school, to hear and accept professional advice and constructive criticism from colleagues, thereby revolutionising their professional learning and skill habits. The  regulatory framework in force in Latvia regarding the  requirements for the  professional development of teachers is also not aimed at promoting the involvement of teachers in professional cooperation and learning activities in their school and promoting the development of the PLC. Article 15 of the regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers of Latvia regarding the education and professional qualifications required for an educator and the  procedures for the  development of the  professional competence of educators (2018) states that the  educator of general, vocational and interest education shall develop his or her professional competence by studying the programme for the improvement of the  professional competence of educators within a  period of three years at the  least amount of 36 hours. On the  other hand, Article 19 of the  same regulations states that in the  development of the  professional competence of an educator outside direct pedagogical tasks (participation in conferences, seminars, masterclasses, traineeship industry undertakings, participation in training organised by employers’ organisations to promote the competitiveness of the educator, personal development) takes up topics within three years to a  maximum of 12 hours. Consequently, it can be concluded that the  requirements in force in Latvia for the  professional development of teachers are mainly intended to implement the professional development of educators only in formal professional development programmes outside the  day-to-day pedagogical work of the  school, but within the meaning of the regulatory framework regarding the professional development of the  teacher, the  involvement of teachers in professional cooperation and learning activities in the school is not considered. 508 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 It should be noted that in countries which education systems in the OECD PISA studies are characterised by high student learning outcomes, such as Singapore and Japan, the  majority of teachers` professional development activities are carried out in their workplace –schools, where teachers and principals are jointly searching for optimal solutions for their schools to meet specific educational objectives and to solve pedagogical problems (Timperley et al., 2007; Vieluf et al., 2012; Kool & Stoll, 2016; Scleicher, 2016). It is therefore important that Latvian state education policymakers and educational quality monitoring institutions also officially recognize teacher professional development implemented by the PLC through the involvement of teachers in professional cooperation and learning activities at their school. References Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Stoll, L., Thomas, S., & Wallace, M. (2005). Creating and Sustaining Effective Professional Learning Communities (Research Report RR637). Nottingham: National College for School Leadership. Regulations of the  Cabinet of Ministers of Latvia regarding the  education and professional qualifications required for an educator and the  procedures for the  development of the  professional competence of educators (2018). Ministru kabineta 2018.  gada 11. septembra noteikumi Nr. 569 “Noteikumi par pedagogiem nepieciešamo izglītību un profesionālo kvalifikāciju un pedagogu profesionālās kompetences pilnveides kārtību”. 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Timperley, H., Wilson, A., Barrar, H., & Fung, I. (2007). Teacher Professional Learning and Development. Best Evidence Syntheses Iteration. Wellington: New Zealand Ministry of Education. Vanblaere, B., & Devos, G. (2016). Relating school leadership to perceived professional learning community characteristics: A  multilevel analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 57. 26–38. 510 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Van Driel, J., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2001). Professional development and reform in science education: the  role of teachers’ practical knowledge. Journal of Research in Science teaching, 38(2). 137–158. Verbiest, E. (2011). Developing professional learning communities. Paper presented at the AERA conference, 2011, April 7th–12th, New Orleans. Vescio, V., Ross, D., & Adams, A. (2008). A  review of research on the  impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24. 80–91. Vieluf, S., Kaplan, D., Klieme, E., & Bayer, S. (2012). Teaching Practices and Pedagogical Innovation: Evidence from TALIS. Paris: OECD Publishing. 511Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE ASPECTS OF IMPROVING TEACHER’S PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY ORIENTED TOWARDS THE LEARNER’S WELLBEING AND SUCCESS Asta Rauduvaitė Vytautas Magnus University, Vilnius Greta Šadeikytė Vytautas Magnus University, Vilnius ABSTRACT Education today is going through an important period which is marked by changes, therefore, it is essential to consider the needs of the changing society. It calls for a new attitude towards modelling of the educational process that focuses on the  learner’s wellbeing and personal success, i.e., the emphasis is laid on its efficiency, which enables the learner to pursue good learning outcomes. Targeting at the  goals of general education during the  music lesson, the  teacher considers the  peculiarities of the  learners’ developmental period, individual specifics of their attention, perception, thinking and emotional development as well as their inclinations and interests. The teacher also searches for the appropriate educational methods or their combinations. Therefore, on the basis of the conducted research, attempts are made to highlight and create strategies that can contribute to revealing socio-educational factors that can result in successful learning and wellbeing of a  learner. The  research problem is formulated as the  question: what factors can have influence on improvement of music teacher’s pedagogical activity while focusing on the learner’s wellbeing and his/her success in the process of education? The goal of the research: to reveal possibilities for improving music teachers’ pedagogical activity that focuses on the  learner’s wellbeing and success in a  school of general education. The  research revealed that achievements in innovative educational research direct the teacher towards successful participation in the processes of music education development and dissemination. Keywords: music education, music teacher, learner. Introduction Education of pupils in schools is one of the areas where the main goals of the education reform are being implemented, i.e., the emphasis is laid on enabling the learners to comprehensively develop their physical, mental and spiritual qualities, to unfold their personality that would cherish meaningful values (The National Education Strategy for the  Period of 2013–2022, https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.37 Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... 512 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 2014). The Order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania No. V–683 On the  Approval of the  Description of Teacher Education Model (2017) targets at reforming the system of teacher training and qualification by training teachers who constantly develop professionally and work efficiently, teachers as members of the system of education who are motivated, flexible, not afraid of challenges and innovation. Different roles of the teacher are emphasized – a researcher; a person able to get to know the  learner and cherish his/her powers; in the  context of global changes, a  creator of educational interaction and innovative content; a  learner’s advisor and consultant; a provider of pedagogical help in case of inclusive education; etc. In this context, educational documents respond to the needs of personal, societal and state development to foster an independent person for the future – flexible, open, responsible, creating, able to solve problems and adapt to the  changing conditions of the  environment (Education and training in Europe, 2020; Descriptor of Professional Competences of a Teacher, 2007; On the Approval of the Description of Requirements for Teacher Qualification, 2014). All the  important factors mentioned above predetermine the attractiveness and prestige of the pedagogical profession, moreover, they precondition teaching/learning outcomes. Transforming educational research has been undergoing social, technological and cultural changes, which call for a new attitude towards modelling of the educational process that focuses on the learner’s wellbeing and personal success. The  pedagogical interaction between the  learner and the  teacher and a  two-way dialogue are perceived as a  condition for engaging the  learner into successful educational activity, encouraging him or her to discover, learn and create. Communication between the  teacher and the  learner play a  significant role, where the  interaction takes place and information is exchanged. Music education in such a context is a rather specific discipline encompassing the theoretical content together with a wide range of musical practice, during which not only musical abilities but also aesthetic, emotional components a well as those of feelings and intelligence are developed. Therefore, the  success of the  teacher relies on a  versatile meaningful musical activity, whose relevance has been investigated by numerous music educologists from different countries: Heimonen, Herbert (2019), Sepp, et al (2019), Davidova, et al (2017), Hedden (2017), Hofer (2017), Sakadolskienė (2017), Vitkauskas, et al. (2012), Girdzijauskas (2012) and others. The research problem is formulated as the question: what factors can have influence on improvement of music teacher’s pedagogical activity while focusing on the learner’s wellbeing and his/her success in the process of education? The goal of the research: to reveal possibilities for improving music teachers’ pedagogical activity that focuses on the learner’s wellbeing and success in a school of general education. 513Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė. The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... Music Teachers in the Context of Changing Education Paradigms The role of the  music teacher is not limited to passing on knowledge in the music lesson, the teacher is the one who fosters the learners’ wider interests, search for information not only within the  scope of the  school but also outside it. Music content changes due to the  changes in social and cultural life, increase of media influence and changing values. The  learners openly accept modern information, which does not always form a  favourable, aesthetic perception of music. Therefore, challenges of the  changing society provoke music teachers to orient in a  changing environment, to search for diverse methods that ensure increased interest of the  learner as well as develop his/her personality. According to Rinkevičius (2002), in order to successfully develop learners’ abilities of musical thinking and musical culture, it is essential that the teacher should not only consider himself/herself to be a disseminator of information, but also a creator of a personality. According to Johnson and Mattheuws (2017), the teacher’s pedagogical activity can be divided into three stages: planning, instructing and reflecting. Reflective teacher’s thinking is of key importance in the proper choice of flexible teaching methods that meet the  learners’ needs. In their research conducted, Powell and Parker (2017) refer to an image of a successful teacher possessing qualities such as taking care of pupils, being honest, having a  good sense of humour, being able to manage time and energy, feeling self-confident, being joyful, humble, patient and consistent in his/her professional activity. Besides, a  successful music teacher does not distinguish between professional and everyday life. Lasauskienė (2010) claims that the  teacher’s ability to work in diverse teaching/learning environments, dissemination of new ideas, appreciation of a  learner’s knowledge and achievements, search for innovative teaching methods are constituents of the teacher’s main mission. Therefore, the teacher performs various functions in the educational process, such as diagnosing, planning, assessing, organizing, etc. The teacher develops own artistic and pedagogical powers while developing himself or herself, thus, he/she is capable of optimizing the  educational process and as a  result, simultaneously develops own personality (Vitkauskas, 2001). Moreover, Strakšienė (2004) states that the type of the music teacher makes influence on cooperation in the music lesson, as it has been noticed that the  personality type of a  music teacher can predetermine the  success of the  learners. Abramauskienė and Kirliauskienė (2014) claim that the music teacher is supposed to not only be good at the  subject field but also have comprehensive erudition of musical culture, since the subject of music encompasses a wide range of 514 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 musical experiences (from psychomotor skills to aesthetic relationship with music). Therefore, it is important to develop a deeper and more meaningful learner’s relationship with music. The  content of music education should encourage the learner to discover, show interest, think creatively, perceive and interpret, since the learner’s wellbeing and success of music education depend on that. Methods The national survey “Pedagogical activity of the  contemporary music teacher in a  Lithuanian general education school: state and possibilities for improving” was conducted in Lithuania in 2016-2018 with the aim to identify and evaluate the peculiarities of the music teacher’s professional activity, to foresee strategies for the  improvement of the  professional development of music teachers as well as those for the  training of music teachers with the  focus on the  wellbeing and success of the  learner. The  information was obtained from teachers, school heads, learners and parents, whereas this article presents the  results of an online survey of music teachers. The  research sample embraced 306 music teachers from general education schools in Lithuania; they teach at institutions of primary, basic (lower secondary) and upper secondary education. Scientific recommendations how to target the research at the wellbeing of the subject that were provided by Bitinas (2006), Žydžiūnaitė and Sabaliauskas (2017) were referred to while conducting the  research. The  data obtained were carefully examined; they are authentic, probable, valid and reliable. The methods of the  research: Data collection: integrative analysis of scientific literature and educational documents; written questionaire survey of music teachers. Data analysis: statistical analysis of research data using a statistical data processing software; qualitative content analysis. The questionnaire survey method was used to conduct the  reseach, where the  compiled questionnaire employed in the  research process encompassed questions related to planning and organization of the  music lesson; teaching and learning; help to the  learner; assessment; relationships, procedure and class management; and learning environment. The questionnaire consisted of 70 statements that can be answered by choosing one of the  provided options: agree, partially agree, disagree. It also included questions aiming to characterize the respondent’s age, education, working experience, qualification category, size of the school, type and location of the educational institution. 515Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė. The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... Results and discussion The analysis of the  characteristics of the  survey respondents revealed that the  majority of them are music teachers aged between 41–50 years old. Data analysis also disclosed that their working experience ranges mainly from 15 to 25 years, that music teachers have a university degree and the distribution of the qualification category between a senior teacher and a  teacher methodologist is almost the  same. Since the  quantitative research was conducted by carrying out a questionnaire survey in Lithuania, the information related to the location (city, town, village) of the respondents was also included. The majority of the teachers who participated in the survey work in the city. The research targeted at music teachers of primary, basic (lower secondary) and upper secondary schools of general education but the  analysis of the  results shows that the  majority of  the  respondents work in gymnasiums. Although the  participants of the  survey teach in general education institutions of a  different size, the  majority of them work in schools with the  number of learners ranging from 200 to 500. The online survey of the  research conducted aimed to ascertain music teachers’ pedagogical activity in general education schools, problems that emerge, possibilities for improving, therefore, the  teachers were inquired about organization and planning of music lessons. (Table 1). Table 1. Planning and organizing a music lesson: insights into how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I rely on educational documents that regulate music education 74.5 23.9 1.0 I feel responsible for the outcomes of my pedagogical activity 98.0 1.3 0 Teaching/learning objectives, educational content, methods and teaching aids are compatible in my lesson 76.8 21.9 1.0 The teaching methods I apply correspond to the age, experience, capacities and needs of the learners 84.6 14.4 0.7 I formulate objectives of the lesson exactly and clearly so that the learners can understand them 81 18.3 0.7 I plan music lessons including elements of “unexpectedness and creativity” 58.2 40.8 1.0 I plan the content of music lessons taking into consideration the  learners’ progress, musical skills and needs of a particular group 80.7 19 0.3 I plan integrated assignments and activities together with teachers of other subjects 41.5 49.7 8.5 516 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The  analysis of the  research data reveals that music teachers feel responsible for the outcomes of their pedagogical activity (98.0 per cent of the  respondents indicated the  option of “agree”) and rely on educational documents that regulate music education (74.5 per cent correspondingly). The research disclosed that teachers plan the content of music lessons taking into consideration the skills of a particular class of learners (80.7 per cent) and apply teaching methods that correspond to the age and experience of their learners (84.6 per cent). It is noticeable that nearly a half of the teachers who participated in the survey (49.7 per cent of the respondents indicated the  option of “partially agree”) less often integrate music lessons with other subjects or plan integrated assignments in their own lessons. Only 58.2 per cent of the respondents plan music lessons including elements of “unexpectedness and creativity”. However, no matter how active the teacher may be, if the  learners are even occasionally prevented from taking over the  initiative, it is hardly possible to expect interesting and independent solutions made by learners themselves as well as performance-oriented success of the  pupil (Girdzijauskienė, 2008; Šečkuvienė, 2004). Creative activity is primarily related to the learners’ ability to independently perceive the problem and look for the ways to solve it. The research also aimed at disclosing aspects of improving teaching (Table 2). Table 2. Teaching: insights into how to improve the teacher’s professional activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I integrate music with other subjects 60.1 37.9 1.6 I relate musical activities with everyday experience and interests of the learners 65.7 32.4 1.6 I apply teaching/learning methods that aim at consolidating learning 75.8 22.5 0.3 I employ feedback methods so that to reflect pupils’ learning 67.3 30.4 1.3 I foresee which learner or group of learners may need help while doing the tasks and prepare for this in advance 52.0 44.8 2.3 When the learners work either individually or perform tasks in pairs or groups, they are well aware of the rules and process of such forms of work 68.3 30.4 1.0 I select information relevant to music education from various sources of information 84 15 0.7 Learners in my lessons assume the role of the teacher (e.g., they become partners, consultants, advisers, mediators, planners, experts) 34 60.1 5.2 517Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė. The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I assign homework tasks to deepen and consolidate the material acquired during the lesson 30.7 44.8 21.9 I consistently teach according to the textbook in my lessons 9.2 53.6 36.6 The learners use workbooks 19.9 34.3 44.8 As indicated in Table 2, music teachers apply teaching/learning methods that aim at consolidating learning (75.8 per cent of the  respondents) and reflect at the  end of the  lesson (67.3 per cent). The  respondents point out that they collect information from various sources while preparing for lessons (84 per cent). However, 44.8 per cent of the  participants in the  survey state that their pupils do not use workbooks. More than 50 per cent of the teachers teach according to the textbook inconsistently, only 30.7 per cent of the  respondents claim that they assign homework tasks to consolidate the  material acquired during the  lesson. The  results of the  study suggest that teachers take into consideration the  needs and experience of the  learners. However, the  teacher is supposed to be a  facilitator, a  counsellor who provides the  pupils with information and tools, a person who assists in foreseeing possible ways of problem solution, a  one who plans and organizes a  successful performance of the  learners (Hallam, 2010). Therefore, it is possible to claim that the  teachers are in constant pursue of new materials, they strive to employ a  diversity of teaching methods, they evaluate the  content and asses the  outcomes of  their work, i.e., they try model the  educational process with focus on the learner’s wellbeing and personal success. Aspects of organization of the learning process, the results of which are provided in Table 3, were also analysed in the research. Table 3. Learning: insights into how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I encourage learners to ask questions and get fully involved in the activities in the classroom 84.3 15 0.3 I formulate tasks that promote problem-based learning and learning through experience 49.3 45.1 4.2 My lesson opens up possibilities for creative self- expression 62.4 35.9 0.3 The pupils learn how to cooperate with each other during my lessons 71.2 27.8 0 518 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The analysis of the results shows that the respondents encourage their learners to get fully involved in the  classroom activities, to engage in a  dialogue, music teachers create possibilities for the  learners to develop their self-expression through creative activities. 71.2 per cent of the survey participants claim that their pupils learn how to cooperate with each other during the lesson. On the other hand, only 49.3 per cent of the respondents formulate tasks that promote problem-based learning and learning through experience. Based on the  data collected in the  survey it is possible to claim that the development of pupils’ critical thinking and communication skills in the music lesson remains a relevant issue (General programmes of primary and basic (lower secondary) education, 2009). Moreover, the respondents were asked to evaluate the statements related to the area of help for the learner, therefore, Table No. 4 presents insights into the improvement of the aspect in question. Table 4. Help for the learner: insights into how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I assign tasks of different complexity taking into consideration different musical skills and capacities of the learners 53.3 44.4 1.6 I provide feedback to the learners related to their individual achievements 74.2 24.5 0.7 I prepare additional tasks for the more gifted learners, I foresee ways for individual self-dependent learning together with a pupil 47.7 46.1 5.2 My remarks are directed towards the work done by the learner, not to the person 87.6 11.1 1 I provide the learners with an opportunity to self- correct their mistakes 80.1 19.0 0.3 I develop self-esteem and self-confidence of the learners 87.6 11.4 0.7 I combine the aims, objectives and teaching methods with the individual needs of the learners 53.6 43.8 2.0 I plan additional work for the learners with special educational needs 49.3 42.5 7.2 The learners have a possibility to develop their own musical skills when taking part in various projects, concerts and festivals 88.9 10.1 0.7 More gifted or more experienced learners provide help for those who need it 76.8 20.9 1.6 According to the  survey results (Table 4), nearly 89 per cent of the  respondents affirm that their learners develop own musical skills in the music lesson and participate in various educational activities of music. 519Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė. The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... Less than a  half of the  survey participants prepare additional tasks for the more gifted learners, promote self-dependent learning, plan additional work for the  learners with special educational needs. On the other hand, a  significant number of the  respondents (76.8 per cent) claim that they create conditions for the  learners with more experience in music to help their classmates, thus, the cooperation among the pupils is developed. The research data analysis also showed that music teachers seek to develop their pupils’ self-confidence and self-esteem, encourage them to notice the mistakes made and analyse them in the music lesson. It is worth highlighting that the  respondents state that they evaluate their pupils for the work done, not as a person (87.6 per cent). Approximately 75 per cent of the survey participants provide feedback to the learners related to their individual achievements during the  lesson, i.e., successful learning and wellbeing of the learner are given considerable attention. Nevertheless, the  analysis of the  study data preconditions the  need to encourage schools to apply innovative teaching methods, to develop communication skills, skills of cooperation and self-dependent learning, to promote the  use of information and communication technologies in the process of music education. In the survey the respondents were also inquired about the assessment of the  learners’ achievements, the data obtained are analysed in Table 5. Table 5. Assessment: insights into how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree The assessment criteria are well known and understandable for the learners 84 13.4 1.3 I often praise and encourage the learners for their good performance 95.8 4.2 0 I apply unanimous assessment criteria for the  learners’ progress and musical achievements 77.1 20.3 1.3 I compile a plan of tasks for assessment for a learning cycle 34.3 56.2 8.5 I regularly evaluate musical achievements of the learners by recording their progress 61.1 35.9 2.6 The evaluation is commented and justified 77.8 20.3 1.6 I encourage the learners to self-evaluate and reflect on their own achievements 67 30.7 1.6 I encourage the learners to evaluate others according to the criteria 43.5 47.1 8.8 I discuss instances of success and failures with my colleagues 44.8 49.7 5.6 520 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The results in Table 5 illustrate that about 96 per cent of the respondents encourage the learners for their good performance, 67 per cent encourage the  pupils to self-evaluate and reflect on their own achievements. 77 per cent of the survey participants apply unanimous assessment criteria for the  learners’ progress and musical achievements, they give comments and justify their evaluation. 84 per cent of music teachers claim that the  assessment criteria are well known and understandable for their learners. However, about 56 per cent of the  respondents do not compile a plan of tasks for assessment for a learning cycle. Meanwhile, nearly a half of the survey participants indicated the option of “partially agree” dealing with the statement about discussing instances of success and failures with their colleagues. Therefore, it can be assumed that the assessment process in the music lesson aims at motivating the learners and providing possibilities for experiencing success. However, the  pupil shall not be afraid to ask, make a  mistake, have a  different opinion form the  majority. The  most important prerequisite for one’s better learning outcomes is the  pupil’s psychological security, therefore, it is essential to create a  favourable climate in the classroom (Foran, 2009; Hunter, et al, 2010; Salienė, 2016). It is well known that assessment aims at helping the  learner to study successfully, develop oneself and get mature. Assessment enables the  teacher to accumulate and use information about the pupil’s learning experience, achievements, progress made, to foresee a learning perspective and make reasonable solutions. Furthermore, findings of the research related to relationships, procedure and class management are discussed in Table 6. Table 6. Relationships, procedure, class management: insights into how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I sometimes make rules for the behaviour in the classroom together with the learners 70.3 25.8 3.3 In case of interference, I respond to the situation immediately 87.9 10.5 0.3 I deal with the learners who have behavioural problems individually 42.5 47.4 8.8 I manage to build a friendly relationship between my pupils and me in the classroom 78.4 20.6 0 If the learners fail to understand something during the lesson, they address me for help 88.2 9.8 1.3 I give negative evaluation 26.5 44.4 28.1 I give only positive evaluation 20.6 42.2 35 521Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė. The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree I keep reminding the learners which kind of behaviour is acceptable in the classroom 65.4 30.1 3.6 I raise my voice 11.8 63.4 23.5 I try not to pay attention to problems that sometimes emerge 7.8 46.1 45.1 I ask those who make a noise to leave the classroom 5.2 17.3 75.5 I am punctual, I avoid “time killing”, I do not waste time on unnecessary things, I prepare the materials, musical instruments, etc. in advance 76.5 21.9 0.7 There appear no problems of discipline and behaviour in my lessons 29.7 56.9 12.7 The analysis of the research data revealed that music teachers respond to interference in the  music lesson and try to deal with such a  situation (87.9 per cent). In case the  learners find the  lesson material or an assignment difficult to understand, they address the teacher for help during the  lesson (88.2 per cent), which reveals that the  relationships between the  pupils and the  teacher are positive (78.4 per cent). 76.5 per cent of the respondents claim that they do not waste time in the music lesson, they prepare the  materials in advance, besides, 70.3 per cent state that they make rules for the behaviour in the classroom together with the  learners. The study disclosed that music teachers give approximately the  same amount of positive (42.2 per cent) and negative (44.4 per cent) evaluation to their pupils. 47.4 per cent of the  respondents marked the  option of “partially agree” when dealing with the  statement about how they address the  learners who have behavioural problems. About 76 per cent of the  teachers do not ask those pupils who make a  noise to leave the  classroom when trying to manage problematic situations during the lesson. It can be noted that about 60 per cent of the respondents claim that there appear no problems of discipline and behaviour in their lessons. Taking into consideration the  results in Table 6, it is possible to notice that the  relationships, procedure, class management in the  music lesson are directed towards successful and safe education and oriented towards the  child’s wellbeing. It is obvious that in order to make the  educational process attractive and joyful it is important to select proper teaching methods, tools and topics that would enhance the  learner’s interest in the educational process, one’s motivation to study, one’s responsibility, it is essential that conditions and situations allowing the learner to experience the success of learning and performance are created. The information provided in Table 7 illustrates the  survey results that characterise learning environment in the music lesson. 522 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 7. Learning environment: insights into how to improve the teacher’s pedagogical activity (in per cent) Statements Agree Partially agree Disagree The atmosphere in the classroom is characterized by the lack of tension and fear 79.7 14.1 5.6 The predominant communication between my pupils and me is characterized by mutual respect 75.8 23.2 0.3 There is no urgency in the lesson, I am patient when responding to some pupils’ slow pace of learning 63.1 35.6 0.7 I show understanding when reacting to mistakes of the learners 89.9 9.5 0.3 I have enough music textbooks in the music room 44.4 36.3 18 There are numerous teaching/learning tools received through EU projects in the music room 24.2 31 43.5 I also use my own visual tools in the lesson 65.4 30.7 2.3 I use a variety of tools to deliver the material (computer, multimedia) during the lesson 76.8 15.7 6.2 I use a Smart Board in the lesson 6.5 10.8 80.7 I use a variety of music computer programmes in the lesson (Sibelius, Magix Music maker, The Ejay, Groovy Music, Auralia). 14.4 37.6 46.4 I use non-traditional teaching/learning environments (going to concerts, on educational excursions) 35.3 50.3 13.4 In the music lesson we most often perform the following activities: Sing, 78.4 20.6 0.3 Play various musical instruments, 46.7 45.4 5.2 Rhythm, 67 31.4 0.7 Solfeggio, 39.5 45.4 12.7 Create music, 25.2 56.5 16.3 Improvise, 38.2 59.9 6.9 Participate in discussions to analyse and evaluate the musical pieces we listened to, 66 29.1 3.3 Participate in some extra musical activities at school, 70.3 26.1 2 Participate in musical events in the city. 55.6 35.9 6.2 Working conditions at school are good (music room, safe environment, suitable working hours, good infrastructure, etc.) 53.9 36.6 8.2 The school allocates sufficient funds to equip the music room with teaching/learning tools 33 45.4 19.9 We can move freely, rearrange the desks, sit in a circle, etc. in the music room 49 31.7 17.3 523Asta Rauduvaitė, Greta Šadeikytė. The Aspects of Improving Teacher’s Professional ... Favourable learning environment and mutual collaboration enable the learner to find intrinsic motivation to study and master the information received during the lesson. The survey participants emphasize that they show understanding when reacting to mistakes of the  learners (89.9  per  cent), moreover, a mutual respect is predominant in the communication between the  teacher and pupils (75.8 per cent). Furthermore, the  atmosphere in the  music lesson is characterized by the  lack of tension and fear (79.7 per  cent). The majority of the  respondents (76.8 per  cent) indicate that they employ various teaching tools in the music lesson. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that more than 80 per cent of the teachers do not use Smart Board in the classroom, 46.4 per cent do not make use of a variety of music computer programmes and 43.5 per cent of the respondents claim that teaching/learning tools are not sufficient in the music room (received through EU projects). Thus, it can be assumed that the  insufficient use of modern technology makes the  music lesson less attractive for a contemporary learner. The research also aimed at investigating the  activities that prevail in the music classroom. The analysis of the survey results disclosed that singing (78.4 per cent), rhythm (67 per cent) and participation in discussions to analyse and evaluate the musical pieces the pupils listened to (66 per cent) are the predominant ones. Besides, the teachers also encourage their pupils to participate in extra curriculum activities at school (70.3 per cent). Less attention is given to solfeggio (the option of “partially agree” was marked by 45.4 per cent of the  respondents). The  survey participants affirm that working conditions at their school are favourable (53.9 per cent), whereas only 33 per cent of them agree that their school allocates sufficient funds to equip the music room with teaching/learning tools. The teachers agree (49 per cent) that it is possible to organize various activities in their classroom since they can move freely and rearrange the desks. The research confirms that the  learning environment should be creative, since it fosters the  learners’ innovative thinking and flexibility, it preconditions the  ability to envisage and notice problems, to think and experiment. When experiencing the  joy of creativity, a  positive approach to novelty is developed as well as imagination, sensitivity, openness to oneself and others, moreover, the learners are encouraged to participate in a variety of activities so that they could satisfy their needs for self-expression. Conclusions The research revealed that achievements in innovative educational research direct the teacher towards successful participation in the processes of music education development and dissemination. The  research data 524 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 allow to conclude that the  activity of the  teacher today is based on the following: the content of the lesson is planned considering the abilities, developmental peculiarities of a  specific class and applying appropriate educational methods; information for the  lesson is collected from various information sources; critical thinking, communication skills and creativity are promoted in the  lesson taking into account the  learners’ interests and needs; evaluation of school learners’ achievements encourage them to learn and reflect, assessment criteria are understood and accessible to everyone according to abilities, etc. Having considered the opinion of the teachers in the survey, the following aspects of the  teachers’ activity that focus on the  success and wellbeing of learners can be highlighted: efficiency of school students’ learning is improved by integration of new technologies, video and audio equipment in a lesson; continuous search for ways of curriculum improvement; efficient application of teaching aids in a lesson; differentiation of assignments and possibility for its choice; attention to interdisciplinary integration; inclusive education; variety of material resources; needs for teachers’ professional development, etc. References Abramauskienė, J., Kirliauskienė, R. 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Aukštesniųjų klasių mokinių dorovinės kultūros ugdymas muzikine veikla [Development of Moral Culture of Higher-Class Pupils through Musical Activity]. Klaipėda: KU leidykla. Girdzijauskienė, R. (2008). Muzikos mokytojo profesinės kompetencijos ypatumai [Peculiarities of Music Teacher’s Competency]. Tiltai, 37, 5–12. Hallam, S. (2010). The  power of music: Its impact on the  intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. International journal of music education, 28(3), 269–289. Hedden, D. (2017). Lessons from Lithuania: A  pedagogical approach in teaching improvisation, International Journal of Music Education, 35(2), 289–301. Heimonen, M., Herbert, D. G. (2019). Advancing music education via Nordic cooperation: equity and equality as central concepts in Finland. In Herbert D. G., Hauge T. B. (Eds.), Advancing Music Education in Northern Europe (pp. 119–140). London & New York: Roputledge. Höfer, F. (2017). 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(2009). Vilnius: Švietimo aprūpinimo centras. Rinkevičius, Z. (2002). Muzikinis mąstymas ir jo ugdymas mokykloje [Musical Thinking and Its Development at School]. Klaipėda: Spindulys. Sakadolskienė, E. (2017). Ne vien žinios ir gebėjimai: transformacijos per mokytojo socializaciją ir tapatybės ugdymą [Not Just Knowledge and Skills: Transformations in Teacher Socialization and Identity]. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia, 38, 42–57. Salienė, V. (2016). Mokytojų rengimas Lietuvoje: iššūkiai ir galimybės [Teacher Training in Lithuania: Challenges and Opportunities] Ganatleba, Gruzijos technikos universitetas, 27–37. Šečkuvienė, H. (2004). Vaiko muzikinių gebėjimų ugdymas [Development of Musical Skills of Children]. Vilnius: VPU leidykla. Sepp, A., Laanemets, U., Kiilu, K. (2019). Bridging the past, present and future in Estonia music education. In Herbert, D. G., Hauge, T. B. (Eds.), Advancing Music Education in Northern Europe (pp. 141–154). 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Vilnius: Vaga. 527Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 SHIFTING THE FOCUS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: FROM INDIVIDUAL TEACHERS’ COMPETENCES TO A SYSTEM OF CONTEXTUAL PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY Līva Goba-Medne University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The aim of the proposed article is to compare two conceptually different views on teacher professional development: the  traditional competence approach and the  model of system of contextual professional activity as proposed by the  researchers of cultural-historical activity theory. The competence model is aimed primarily at the all-round development of an individual, while the activity system model analyses the actual occurring professional activity in its systemic context. While the competence model helps identify the areas of professional development for an individual teacher, the activity system model lets systemic contradictions in the  working practice be identified, analysed and addressed by modelling solutions. In addition, the  competencies of individual teachers of an activity system (comprising the teaching-learning process in a particular school) may be considered interconnected and complementary. It is concluded that the  competence approach is more suitable for teacher training and the  identification of the  required competence spectrum to implement a  certain type of curriculum, whilst activity systems approach is suitable for planning and implementing professional development as an effort to redesign work collaboratively on a  school level, focusing on the  improvement of work practices according to the  identified issues, constraints, contradictions and collaboration opportunities. Keywords: Professional development of teachers, Activity systems approach, Competence approach. Introduction Teacher quality and teaching quality have been stated as key assets for the quality building of an education system (European Commission, 2013; Guerriero, 2017). Therefore, teacher professional development, commonly understood as the  improvement of the  professional competencies of in- service teachers via participation in dedicated activities, is inevitably a  focal point in a  comprehensive education policy. If initial teacher https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.38 Līva Goba-Medne Shifting the Focus of Professional Development ... 528 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 education providers may regard their client to some extent as a  blank page (professional identity still to be formed), in the  case of organizing professional development of in-service teachers it is crucial to account for the  systemic historical developments that shape the  common sphere of comprehension. Experience is constructed contextually and so is learning (Goba, 2019). In a country like Latvia with a population of schoolteachers characterised by a  high average age and a  small proportion of young teachers (Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia, 2019), the  challenges faced by most teachers during their professional career should be taken into account  – such as reorganization of the  education system after the  collapse of the  USSR, democratization, liberalization, significant decrease in teachers’ authority in society, changes in the general perception of what pedagogical approaches are to be considered optimal, uncertainty associated to major changes in society (Andersone, 2015; Kokare, 2011; Zaļaiskalne, 2013). A new challenge to the schoolteachers of Latvia is the anticipated reform, Skola 2030, that aims at fundamentally shifting the teaching practices (Oliņa et al., 2018; Skola 2030, 2017). It also sets forth a  challenge to reduce teaching-by-example and drilling, shifting the emphasis to fostering critical thinking and deep learning; enhancing skills in curriculum development as well as abandoning the former exemplar curriculums. This reform could set the cornerstone for systemic changes and invigorate learning, but it could also become another trial for the educators to endure before they revert to former practices. Professional development activities are typically aimed at the competence building of teachers; in Latvia these activities commonly consist of further education courses, education conferences and seminars, as well as observation visits to other schools and organizations (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2019a). The  activities are targeted at individual teachers rather than teacher-teams and are mostly disconnected from classroom practices and the  specific teaching context. The existent regulatory framework promotes participation in activities that result in a certificate attesting the number of hours devoted to development; ensuring that participation in professional development activities results in positive contributions to the  teaching practices is the  collaborative responsibility of teachers and school leaders (Kozlovska, 2015). However, institutionally provided activities have a  limited power to influence the practice as there are no universal incentives for teachers to apply the mastered skills and competences in practice, and the evaluation of the  impact of certain professional development activities is considered complicated and costly (McChesney & Aldridge, 2019). Despite the  best efforts of policy makers to re-shape the teaching practices, large educational 529Līva Goba-Medne. Shifting the Focus of Professional Development ... reforms are seen to have limited influence over practices and cultures in schools (Labaree, 2012). There are systemic constraints that need to be addressed in order to implement an innovative learning culture as a school- wide phenomenon in contrast to confined efforts of enterprising individuals. The approach of systems analysis arises as an attempt to overcome these constraints via identifying, analysing and mitigating them (Barab et al., 2002; Engeström, 2001; Yamagata-Lynch & Haudenschild, 2009). The aim of the proposed article is to compare two conceptually different views on teacher professional development: the  dominating professional competence approach (European Commission, 2013; Pellegrino, 2017) and the  systems model of contextual professional activity as proposed by the  researchers of cultural-historical activity theory (Engeström, 1987; Engeström & Sannino, 2010). Competence approach: typically focusing on an individual The historical model of workplace training in business and industry was shaped by the  assumption that issues in employees work are caused primarily by deficits of knowledge or skills, therefore targeted programmes are delivered that would alleviate this deficit (Cranton, 1996). Through the  years complex competence models have been developed in order to map all the  contents of specific competences in detail for optimal performance. Typically arranged through sets of knowledge, skills and dispositions or attitudes (European Commission, 2013), these models help set goals for vocational education curriculums and professional higher education programmes. They are also used to set professional standards and to determine appropriate candidates for certain positions. However, the  downside of these elaborate competence models emerges when it comes to their application outside the  context of formal education, and professional development of in-service teachers in particular. In fact, the  accompanying life-long learning ideology has been criticized for its narrow, utilitarian and instrumental view of learning, prioritizing the needs of the  market and diminishing the  value of curiosity, emancipation and moral dimension that has been a strong aspect of adult education tradition (Thompson, 2007). The  issue with the  ponderous competency models has been addressed with new frameworks that emphasize the  transversal aspects – such as the 21st century competences (Voogt & Roblin, 2012), key competences (European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2007, 2019), transversal attitudes, skills and knowledge for democracy (Mompoint-Gaillard & Lázár, 2015). When it comes to the  identification of professional development needs and goals of in-service teachers, how helpful are these competence 530 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 frameworks? If the  learning needs are identified as deficits in specific instrumental knowledge and skills, narrowly targeted training should solve the  problem. However, large-scale international studies show that collaborative and school-based approaches are among the most impactful types of professional development (OECD, 2019b). The  thematic working group on teacher professional development set up by the  European Commission points out that due to the  complexity and range of competencies required for contemporary teaching, an individual teacher may not be expected to have them all developed to the same high degree, or even developed at all. Therefore, the focus of competence development necessarily shifts towards a teacher team, a school or an entire education system, so that the competence set is embodied collaboratively (European Commission, 2013). A large body of research shows that the  teacher collective efficacy and the  beliefs teachers hold about teaching and learning significantly influence student learning (Donohoo, Hattie, & Eells, 2018; Hattie & Zierer, 2018). Thus, teacher professional development should be regarded as a process of not only acquiring the lacking knowledge and skills, but also of revising beliefs about education that shape one’s dispositions. What we do is shaped by our beliefs, these beliefs are shaped by our experiences and our experiences are inevitably constructed within our life-worlds, shaping our sphere of comprehension (Goba, 2019). Therefore, professional development of in-service teachers necessarily calls for a systemic view. Activity systems approach: professional development and learning as a school-wide phenomenon A greater collaboration and collective learning for the development of teaching profession was encouraged by the OECD publication as early as 2011 as an approach that enhances the  professional activity of teaching (OECD, 2011). It is stated that collaborative learning and change efforts need to be supported (OECD, 2016). Teaching is an activity that is explicitly social, intersubjective and contextual. Therefore, it calls for a  systemic view of professional activity considering its context, interrelations and contradictory aspects. The activity systems model developed by Yrjö Engeström offers such a  systemic view on professional activity development (Engeström, 1987). Rooted in cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) (Engeström, 2009), it takes activity system as its initial unit of analysis comprising of the mediated action between subject (teacher(s) engaged in the  activity) and object of activity (the horizon of opportunities at which the  activity is directed, the carrier of motive of activity), this mediation is realized through cultural 531Līva Goba-Medne. Shifting the Focus of Professional Development ... tools (physical objects as well as concepts, models, signs, languages etc.) and turned into actual outcomes. The described system becomes contextual and descriptive of organizational realities through integrating the systemic elements of community (in which the  activity is situated), division of labour (allocation of tasks as well as power and status) and rules that guide and constrain the actions within the system (norms, standards, regulations as well as implicit norms and habitual expectations). Any activity system may be seen as involved in network relations to other activity systems (Engeström & Sannino, 2010); thus, several interconnected activity systems become the focus of analysis. If applied to professional development of teachers, this model helps identify contradictions in work practice that may be connected to systemic flaws in work arrangements that alternatively might misleadingly be described as deficiencies in a  certain type of competence (Yamagata- Lynch & Haudenschild, 2009), thereby combining both bottom-up and top-down perspectives. For example, if training is targeted at conflict resolution and communication skills in a  situation where conflicts are resulting from ambiguous allocation of tasks and conflicting rules guiding the  working practice, the  problem might be toned down but not solved. Of course, professional development targeted at individual teachers is less complicated and consumes less resources than analysing and redesigning a  whole professional activity within a  teacher team or a  school. As researchers have noted, there are systemic constraints to collaborative self-organizing learning in schools that systemically inhibit expansive learning  – teaching professionals typically work as isolated practitioners in autonomous classrooms; they work in standardised time sequences at schools that function as encapsulated units, while the measured outcome of the  activity is expressed in grades (Engeström, Engeström, & Suntio, 2002). Tensions and contradictions are inevitably encountered when attempting collaborative learning and activity analysis. According to CHAT, contradictions are the driving force of change, therefore the manifestations of contradictions, tensions, ruptures in the  flow of activity and double binds are met as learning opportunities (Engeström & Sannino, 2010). The activity systems model may be used by coordinators of professional development as an analytic tool to identify systemic contradictions in the  working practice and to delineate developmental needs. But it also serves as a  conceptual tool for CHAT-based formative interventions that aim at collaboratively developing working practices in a  targeted and orderly manner, while developing novel solutions rather than implementing a standardized pre-set scenario developed by an outside expert. The Change laboratory, a  method developed by researchers of Helsinki University, serves both for developing working practices (and that necessarily involves 532 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 learning on the  part of the  involved parties), researching the  involved collaborative learning processes and developing the  underlying theory of expansive learning (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). Research shows that various aspects influence the progress of the  intervention and that, while not guaranteed due to the open-ended nature of the process, the potential gains from the  intervention involve: (a) a  deeper understanding about the  multi-voicedness of the  activity gained through analysis; (b) analysis of core concepts involved in the  activity provide grounds for negotiation and a  better understanding among participants; (c) agency gained by the participants seen as their ability and readiness to engage in reshaping the activity system in question; (d) the reshaped activity system that better serves the needs of those involved (Engeström & Sannino, 2010; Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). The activity systems approach clearly does not prioritize an all-round development of individuals; neither does it provide an ideal state descriptor. Rather, it is a tool for realistically inquiring into the complex components of social reality. The activity systems approach is an opportunity to create solutions that are not yet there (Engeström & Sannino, 2010) and to analyse the  actual occurring professional activity in its systemic and historical context. From a systemic view, the competencies of individual teachers of an activity system (comprising the teaching-learning process at a particular school) may be considered interconnected and complementary. Conclusion and discussion Two conceptually different views on teacher professional development were analysed in this article: the  competence approach and the  activity systems approach. Both have extensive research traditions as well as practical applications; however, the  systems approach is notably less common in professional development practice among schoolteachers. In Latvia, clearly the  dominant approach is directed towards the  competence development of individual teachers, disregarding the  benefits of other collaborative and school-based forms of professional development (Kozlovska, 2015, OECD, 2019a). However, voices gain power in both European (European Commission, 2013) and global arena (Donohoo et al., 2018; Guerriero, 2017; OECD, 2011, 2019b) that advocate for more consideration of school- based realities, learning-collaboration benefits and, consequently, for more systemic approaches to the professional development of teachers. As noted previously, certain systemic constraints distinguish the  working practice of teachers that confine collaborative learning and development efforts. Therefore, the  systemic dimension of teacher professional development requires special attention. 533Līva Goba-Medne. Shifting the Focus of Professional Development ... The dominating competence approach is more directed at an all-round development of individual teachers and serves as an ideal state descriptor. However, it must be kept in mind that the majority of teachers have not developed all the competencies equally well. The competence approach leads the way for teacher preparation, curriculum design and the identification of learning needs of an individual teacher, but it lacks the descriptive power to tackle systemic problems encountered in the working practice of schools. The activity systems approach, by contrast, is suitable for planning and implementing professional development as an effort to redesign work collaboratively on a  school level (and beyond), focusing on the  improvement of work practices according to the  identified issues, constraints, contradictions and collaboration opportunities. The  activity systems model focuses on the  actual occurring professional activity in its systemic context, characterised by the involved actors and other elements of the  system. Its strength is the  developmental path towards innovating and developing a working practice where a unified and easily transferable solution does not exist. It may be concluded that both approaches analysed are not fundamentally contradictory: they are two facets of the same reality, each setting the focus differently. A systemic view towards the working practice is necessary to facilitate the  transformation of practices and to encourage expansive learning, while the  focus on individual dimension allows to account for individual learning needs of teachers and identify teacher beliefs and dispositions that might hinder growth. 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Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(3), 507–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.09.014. Zaļaiskalne, A. (2013). Structural reforms and changes in compulsory content of vocational education in the Republic of Latvia from 1991 till 2011. In A. Kangro (Eds.), Scientific Papers, University of Latvia: Education Management (Vol. 792, pp. 124–137). Rīga: Latvijas Universitātes Akadēmiskais apgāds. Retrieved from https://www.lu.lv/ fileadmin/user_upload/lu_portal/apgads/PDF/LUR-792_Izglit-vad.pdf. 536 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 PILOTING A TEACHER COMPETENCE MANAGEMENT MODEL IN SCHOOLS Anete Butkēviča University of Latvia, Latvia Līga Čakāne University of Latvia, Latvia Inese Dudareva University of Latvia, Latvia Dace Namsone University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Compulsory education curriculum reform will introduce teaching 21st century skills bringing in significant changes to how teacher work happens in Latvia. This highlights the role of school teams to plan not only whole-school development but also teacher personalized professional development to implement necessary changes. This research presents a school- based comparative case study for piloting a teacher competence management model that is created by the authors. The model represents the interaction of goal setting and competence management in organizations and this research paper is emphasizing parts of the model related to teacher competence assessment and development done at the school. 8 schools participated in the piloting in school year 2018/19. The comparative case study in spring semester 2019 happened through gathering and analysing data such as written reports and working documents from school teams. In this research paper we aim to introduce the reader about the four phases of the model and the piloting process and results of the fourth phase – competence development. This paper presents a  research project still in progress and will seek ways how such a model may be implemented in schools. Keywords: Teacher competence management, Teacher assessment, Comparative case study, 21st century skills. Introduction A new compulsory education curriculum reform is being developed and is planned to be implemented in Latvian school practice with school https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.39 Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone Piloting a Teacher ... 537Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... year 2020/2021 (Namsone, 2018; Skola2030, 2017). The reform is aiming to set new educational goals such as implementing student learning that leads to acquiring 21st century skills which is a  widespread educational change in other countries (Care, Griffin, & Wilson, 2017). With changing educational purposes, teachers’ instructional work at the individual level must also change accordingly, which imply important human capital implications including those related to teacher professional development and learning (Saavedra & Opfer, 2012). Previous research in Latvia has already showed that there is a gap between educational policy and actual teaching approaches in the classroom (France, Namsone, & Čakāne, 2015; Volkinšteine & Namsone, 2016). Despite 21st century skills being set as a  particularly important aspect of innovation-intensive labour markets, consensus does not yet exist on how education systems should develop and assess teaching of these skills systematically (OECD, 2015). In the Latvian context, up to date research-based evidence showing that teachers are equipped with the necessary competence and appropriate support in the context of these curriculum changes is limited. Educational researchers in Latvia have been focusing on topics such as in-service and pre-service teacher professional identity (Ivanova & Skara-Mincāne, 2016; Jermolajeva, Bogdanova, & Silchenkova, 2018), pre-service teachers (Daniela, Strods, Rubene, & Kalniņa, 2018), formation of teacher professional learning communities (Geske & Rečs, 2019) or school principals (for a review see Bluma & Daiktere, 2016). To our knowledge, in the context of new education changes such as teaching and learning 21st century skills there have not been empirical research on new approaches to teacher as employee competence management that would be school-based and with direct involvement from the school leaders. Our previous empirical research on creating and piloting a  teacher professional learning model in Latvian schools, proved the usefulness of continues, collaborative school-based PD as a  way to develop teacher competence or parts of it (Namsone & Čakāne, 2019). In regards to the current state of teacher professional development in Latvia, large majority of teachers (95%) participate in PD in the form of courses and seminars, while 61% participate in training based on peer learning and coaching (OECD, 2019) proving the need to widen the PD practice that would be practice-based and done together with school leaders in the school site. In this article we outline the procedure and results from the first piloting of a  teacher competence management model (Zandbergs, et al., 2018) in selected schools e.g. cases (initial sample N = 8) that happened in the spring semester of 2019. This is done to gain insight of the model’s applicability to be transferred and introduced in a wider school practice. 538 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Background Teachers and school leaders should facilitate, create and stimulate conditions for effective instruction at classroom level that is the operating core of any school (Scheerens, 2016, p. 77). According to Jaap Scheerens, Dutch educational and school effectiveness researcher, empirical school effectiveness research show that the following organizational conditions are the main effectiveness enhancing variables: school climate (achievement- oriented policy, a  cooperative atmosphere and an orderly climate), clear goals concerning basic skills, frequent evaluations and time on task. Among other effectiveness enhancing factors are professional development, evaluation and reports for teachers (Scheerens, 2016, p. 97) and effective leadership (Scheerens, 2016, p. 78-79) therefor we include school leaders to participate in the piloting and learn about the model and its implementation in their own practice. Lastly, monitoring and evaluation should not happen in a  way that it threatens teachers’ professional autonomy (Scheerens, 2016, p. 81). Following up on our previous research (Zandbergs, et al., 2018; Butkēviča, et al., 2018; Butkēviča, 2018; Butkēviča et al., 2019; Bērtule et al., 2019) we propose a  teacher competence management model as an approach to help teachers and school leaders answer to the new challenges brought by the education curriculum reform and implement teaching and learning appropriate for students to acquire 21st century skills. The model outlines the management of employee competence within the organization and this article looks into the parts of the model that are more related with competence development. In our research teacher competence is defined as the integrated set of knowledge, skills and beliefs that manifest in a specific work situation (Kunter et al., 2013). Even though organizations in Latvia tend to have established procedures for goal-setting and employee assessment, managers in organizations, including schools, use subjective approaches when managing goals and assessing employee competence. Based on our previous research findings, we propose that using competence as a  building block describing both employees themselves and the goals they are required to reach provides organizations with several benefits. It makes the definition of the goals more precise and aligns better with the organization’s employees. It allows for better forecast of reaching the goals at the start of the cycle. It potentially provides the organizations with the input for the improvement of goal-oriented employee development (Butkēviča, et al., 2018). When linking employee competence to organizational goals, managers can act upon employee competence gaps that may be identified at the start of a goal setting period or during it. This is related to our model’s first phase 539Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... (see figure 1). Introducing an ontology-based model of linking goals to employee competences also provides the basis for developing a competence management model (Zandbergs, et al., 2018) and in this research stage we are piloting the model in school practice (formal education organization) to gain insight of its applicability to be transferred and introduced in these types of organizations. In autumn semester 2018, outside expert-coaches started the comparative case study in eight selected schools. The eight pilot schools, participating in the whole project (period 2018-2021) were selected based on three criteria: 1) size as management workload rate and number of students, six groups (very small to very large) were identified and four of them are represented in this sample; 2) different administratively territorial division, five groups identified, all of them represented in this sample; 3) type of education programme provided by a  school, seven groups identified, five of them represented in this sample (for a more detailed description see our previous research (Butkēviča, et al., 2018, 132). Aim of the study in selected schools was to develop a teacher performance assessment framework for teaching 21st century skills that help determine teacher level of competence (scale 0–4) according to criteria developed (Bērtule, et al., 2019). Teacher knowledge and beliefs (as part of competence construct) were assessed by using an online test with questions such as given classroom situations asking the teacher to tell what their typical action in those situations would be (Butkēviča, et al., 2019). Teacher classroom performance was assessed by lesson observations. Both assessment methods are based on the mentioned framework. In the piloting, a  model of competence management process is used, with four phases, where the initial phase is goal setting and final phase is teacher competence development therefor linking these processes with competence assessment. Our previous research shows that this link between goal setting and competence assessment and development in Latvian organizations including schools is missing (Butkēviča, et al., 2018). Each phase has a  distinct form of process and its outcome (see figure 1) that the participating schools followed through. The first three phases will be shortly explained in the next chapter and the fourth phase in results chapter. 540 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 1. Phases of the competence management process and their outcomes (Butkēviča, et al., 2019) Planning and implementation of piloting the teacher competence management model in selected schools (N=8) happens over a  longer period of time. In this research paper we aim to introduce the reader about the four phases of the model and the piloting process and results of the fourth phase – competence development. We compare the piloting schools as separate cases and make conclusions about the trends of how participating school teams are leading such a model, and what may be the risks and benefits of its implementation in wider school practice. Following research questions are posed: 1. To what extent did the schools succeed in implementing the teacher competence development plan? 2. What are the best practices done in schools when piloting the teacher competence management model? 3. What are the main challenges for schools and expert-coaches when piloting the introduction of the model into school practice? Materials and Methods Five expert-coaches from Interdisciplinary Centre for Educational Innovation at the University of Latvia (ICEI UL) collaborated with pilot schools throughout the piloting (school year 2018/2019). The expert- coaches have been involved in seven to 17 years of experience in designing and leading different types of teacher and school leader professional development and learning activities as well as developing teacher support materials (Namsone & Čakāne, 2018). In Phase I (see figure 1) schools set their goals according to their own choice which happened in autumn semester, 2018. The goals are directly linked to student learning in the classroom related to teaching and learning 21st century skills (see table 1). 541Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... Table 1. Goals set by participating schools School Goal set by the school [summary] 01_V Unified approach for student evaluation 08_Z Student self-directed learning 07_N Student self-directed learning 02_U Improving textual literacy for students through teacher collaboration 04_S Student self-directed learning 06_P Student self-directed learning 03_T Improving different elements of student self-directed learning 05_R   Lessons focused on students’ learning result and their in-depth understanding of learning In Phase II (see figure 1) competence identification happens. Involved expert-coaches identify the needed and appropriated teacher competence profiles according to the goals set in each school. A universal teacher profile for each teacher is created and it consists of selected categories and criteria on desirable level (scale 0-4) based on a theoretical category- criteria framework for teaching performance to develop 21st century skills (Bērtule et al., 2019) (see table 2). Table 2. Phase II Competence identification: teacher universal and actual profile (example) Sc ho ol 04 _S Accordance to school goal: Student self-directed learning Teacher basic skills Clarity of learning goals Feed- back Meta- cognitive skills Structure of the lesson; choice of methods Methodo- logical techniques, classroom management Clarity of chosen learning content Universal profile* 3 3 3 2 2 2 Actual profile* Teacher S_64 2 4 2 3 3 3 Actual profile* Teacher S_73 1 1 1 2 1 1 *(scale 0–4) In Phase III (see figure 1) competence assessment is done through lesson observation and by analysing the lessons. This is how actual teacher profile is obtained. Expert-coaches are involved to assess participating teachers’ actual competence where the assessment result is each teachers’ actual 542 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 profile (see table 2) submitted to the school leaders. Phase II and III helps to recognize the teacher competence gap  – difference between expected competence level (competence level needed to reach goals that are set) and the actual level. If necessary, schools can conduct their own assessments by using rubrics with descriptions of teacher performance levels created for the Latvian educational context (Bērtule, et al., 2019; Namsone, 2018). In spring semester of 2019, the study in selected schools continues with the piloting of the teacher competence management model (see figure 1), more specifically, the model’s fourth phase  – competence development. This started at the beginning of January, 2019 with a joint workshop with leaders (principal with assistant principal) from each school and expert- coaches (see table 4). School leaders were introduced more in detail to the teacher competence management model. Then the following month, schools had time to form teams of teachers and deciding on their desired way of participating in the piloting. In the piloting, school leaders are given teacher assessment results (done and gathered from the previous semester by expert-coaches). Then schools received instructions for how to realize this competence development plan (see figure 2), rubrics with descriptions of teacher performance level and expert-coaches visited schools and did individual support sessions. In Phase IV the expectation of the piloting is that school teams make teacher individual development plans and follow the next steps with the aim to minimize the mentioned competence gap. In the competence development, text in italics indicates examples, such as ‘Assessment Method’ may be a  test, in our case it was lesson observation after which the next steps follow (see figure 2). With this phase the competence development continues until teacher universal and actual profile matches in so allowing the school to reach the set goal. Schools formed teams of teachers and school leaders who participated in the piloting. Figure 2. Competence development elements and their relationship (Phase IV) 543Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... Lastly, in June schools submitted written reports on their piloting experience based on the following criteria: • Activities, events organized with the school teams • Developments / improvements that school teams accomplished • Obstacles that school teams faced • Support needs • Planned activities for next school year • Involved teachers, other colleagues from the school (see table 3). Table 3. Number of involved teachers and school leaders School Number of involved teachers Number of involved school leaders 08_Z 18 (all school teachers) 2 07_N* - - 02_U 15 to 20 3 04_S 22 (all school teachers) 2 06_P 6 4 03_T 5 3 05_R 7 2 01_V** - - *Full report was not submitted ** The school stopped participation in piloting Expert-coaches interpreted the results. The reports are prepared by the assigned teacher team leader who also takes an administrative position in the school therefor in this research we analyse the competence development process from the school administration teams’ point of view. Table 4. Summary of support activities during piloting Date Activity Aim of the activity 04.01.2019 Joint workshop with school administrative teams Introduction to the piloting goal, logic, possible ways how to participate in it 04–29.01.2019 Schools forming teams of teachers, setting out desired ways of participation Collect reports from schools to understand in what scale and format schools want to participate 29.01.2019 Sending out instruction to school teams School teams have unified instructions to guide the piloting 01–28.02.2019 Expert-coaches visiting schools, electronical contact Face to face contact between school teams and expert-coaches, individual support 544 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Date Activity Aim of the activity 01–28.06.2019 Schools prepare reviews about the piloting process Collecting written reviews and artefacts from schools 01–28.06.2019 Interpretation Expert-coaches are reviewing the written reports to start analysis of piloting results, make comparison, identify risks and benefits Results Answer to the first research question: To what extent did the schools succeed in implementing the teacher competence management model? Based on the instructions given at the start of the piloting, school teams linked teacher assessment results with further planning for competence development and thematically focused it around the goal that was set last semester. Some school teams did an additional independent teacher assessment round, mostly by conducting lesson observations, analysed the results with the help of the rubrics showing descriptions of teacher performance level and compared their assessment results with assessment results made by expert-coaches. Additionally, each school had an assigned expert-coach to guide the school teams on how to work with the rubrics and generally help through the piloting process. All schools that continued the piloting have made plans for how to continue the competence development (phase 4) in next school year. School teams used different teacher support materials thematically linked to their goal. School teams formed different types of collaboration forms, for example, working groups in different forms, daily, weekly or bi-weekly meetings etc. Some working groups had assigned teachers who took a  leader’s role. In two schools (08_Z and 04_S) all teachers were involved. In school 06_P in weekly school meetings all teachers were introduced with the piloting progress. School 01_V, after being introduced to the instructions of competence development, opted out from continuing their participation. Stated reasons were that this activity is too time consuming for them and that they have other priorities at the moment. One school did not submit a  full report (see table 5). Two schools prepared individual development plans for participating teachers, the results of these activities are described in next paragraphs. 545Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... Table 5. Summary of written school reports according to proposed criteria School Assessment result Description of development needs Development plan Solutions for de- velopment Realization of the plan 06_P Familiarized with the results Formulated Yes (electronical) Made a plan Individual lesson observation 05_R Familiarized with the results Formulated Yes Made a plan Collaborative lesson observation 03_T Familiarized with the results – Yes (electronical) Made a plan Teams were formed, collaborative lesson observations 08_Z Familiarized with the results – Yes (electronical) Made a plan Collaborative lesson observation 04_S Familiarized with the results Formulated Yes (electronical) Made a plan Collaborative lesson observation 07_N* Familiarized with the results Formulated Yes Made a plan Made a plan 02_U Familiarized with the results Formulated Yes (electronical) Made a plan Collaborative lesson observation 01_V** Familiarized with the results – – – – *Full report was not submitted ** The school stopped participation in piloting Answer to the second research question: What are the best practices done in schools when piloting the teacher competence management model? To answer to the second research question, two school cases will be shortly described. The two cases showed the most progress regarding the model’s fourth phase. School 06_P This school is a high school with grades first to 12th with approximately 550 students, 59 teachers, located in one of the nine largest cities in the country, also called republic cities. The goal set in this school was that students acquire self-directed learning. The school is struggling with an aging workforce that is being replaced by a  relatively young work 546 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 force  – teachers with novice experience. The school leadership team decided to focus on novice teachers during the piloting. The school can be characterized as open to innovations and the school principal has a vision for modernizing the school’s learning environment. In the piloting four school leaders actively participated – the principal and three assistant principals. This leadership team were involved in all activities proposed by the expert-coaches and related to teacher competence assessment and development. They purposefully and with great interest realized the activities and recorded proof of all actions that they took during the piloting. At the beginning they planned to involve six teachers, but in the process more teachers were involved (exact number was not given in the report). Additionally, they informed all teachers about the piloting process in weekly meetings. Competence assessment results are collected about 20 teachers from this school. School leaders first familiarized with the teacher assessment results, student learning results and the instruction. They planned the necessary actions based on the data, then introduced their plan to participating teachers. Teachers had one week to analyse, reflect about the plan, discuss it together and give feedback and suggestions about it. Two school leaders did teacher lesson observation, by using the given rubric. After the lesson observation, the principal had an individual discussion with the teacher and the expert-coach where they identified one main aspect of the teaching practice that should be improved and formed the basis for teacher’s individual development plan. Each teacher set a task that should be done until the end of the semester. Involved teachers formed learning groups depending on their subject areas and who work with the same grades. In these groups, teachers created new classroom assignments for students and other activities supporting student self-directed learning in one selected class in a  four-week period. When setting a  goal and planning activities, the school leadership team is strictly gradual, that is, the goal is divided into specific, measurable smaller steps and deadlines. However, this school struggled with getting the school principal and assistant principals to be involved more greatly due to lack of time. Also, the team was not sure about their actual progress because one semester is too short to determine if changes are actually happening. For the next semester, the school team plans to follow each teachers’ development path more carefully. Lastly, this school team shared their planned activities and weekly progress to all other colleagues thus spanning collaboration in the whole school; and pointed out that this collaboration has changed their understanding and ways of thinking, and made their activities more purposeful and focused on their goal. 547Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... School 04_S. This school is located in a rural area, it is a basic school with grades one to nine, with approximately 200 students and 24 teachers. The school goal can be divided into two parts. For teachers the goal was to introduce four basic elements in the student learning process  – student learning goal, meaningful tasks for students, self-directed learning and development-oriented feedback for students. For students the goal was to introduce tools for assessing growth dynamic of their own self-directed learning. The tools would be used by students themselves for assessing their growth. The school is open to innovations, they set clearly defined goals. The school leadership team is investing in their teachers and also implementing individual discussions with teachers. In the piloting, the principal and assistant principal were involved, later the leadership team expanded to three people. They showed motivation to be involved both in data-based goal setting and in teacher competence assessment. This school team adjusted the lesson observation sheet and planned to do lesson observations four times for each involved teacher. Additionally, an electronic data base for lesson observation results was created compiling information about the goals and the criteria accordingly. Similarly, as in school 06_P, each lesson observation was followed by an individual discussion where the teacher reflected about the weakest points in the lesson and set a goal based on that. Until the next lesson observation, the teacher aims to reach the goal that was set. School team did activities such as watching and analysing video recordings of lesson examples, modelled new lesson activities, lesson observation in their school and in two other partner schools. At the end of this spring semester, teachers set individual goals for their competence development. Additionally, each teacher has a final individual discussion with a school leader. Not all teachers in the team are ready to analyse their own performance, some teachers perceived their individual competence development planning as “just another duty” and not as a possibility for growth. Similarly, as school 06_P, one semester is too short to determine if the activities have led to actual progress. In next semester teachers will plan their individual development plans based on data from lesson observations and will also plan how to reach their development goals within one semester. The school team also plans to create a teacher learning group. 548 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Answer to the 3rd research question: What are the main challenges for schools and expert-coaches when piloting the introduction of the model into school practice? School teams express the need for more support from expert-coaches or at least points out to the lack of sufficient support from them. There is a  need for more time dedicated to learning as a way to bring in a more unified understanding about the model in the school and not only in the school leaders’ level. For example, in the case of school 06_P in each discussion five to six school leaders were involved. The shared experience from pilot schools emphasises the need for high involvement of the school principal and his/her understanding of what it means to plan and follow through a teacher’s individual competence development plan. For example, in school 03_T the principal delegated responsibility of the piloting to teachers. Another challenge is to guide school teams in how to use teacher assessment rubrics, teachers and school leaders still interpret the rubrics and teacher performance differently than expert-coaches. Setting school goals, cascading the goals to teacher individual level, staff development is the responsibility of the school leadership team. As part of the piloting, school leaders were required to be ready to collaborate, go deeper into teacher competence development, invest into teacher growth. According to the data obtained, participating schools with a  motivated leadership team showed better results, and the role of the principal appears to be the most important. At school 01_V, which stopped participating in the piloting, only one deputy principal was initially involved. School 07_N does not have a strong leadership team ready to collaborate with the principal. In school 02_U, during the piloting, there was a change of staff working in the school leadership team, with the main responsibility being delegated to one of the assistant principals. The piloting process shows various experience regarding number of involved teachers. In this stage of the piloting, it was school teams’ free choice to do such competence management. In the future it is planned that a  school involves all teachers in their competence assessment and development. The process of piloting was affected by different factors - size of the school, number of involved staff from the leadership team and number of involved teachers, type of school goals. We don’t have clear evidence showing if implementing the model would be more effective when all teachers are involved or only several groups of teachers. The school goals can be specifically focused on learning results of selected grade level students. This may help gain greater impact of improvements and more focused teacher collaboration and, in the long term, to follow the impact of teachers’ competence development on student learning results. 549Anete Butkēviča, Līga Čakāne, Inese Dudareva, Dace Namsone. Piloting a Teacher ... A positive trend is that the pilot schools are starting to plan their teacher development that is linked to the topical school goals. Schools are organizing teacher learning groups, thus gaining a joint understanding of the necessary changes. However, it is important that the introduction of new knowledge and skills in the everyday practice of teachers is happening in a way that it has more impact on their classroom practice (Lipowsky & Rzejak 2012), thus a positive impact on student learning results. This is accomplishable through lesson observation, analysing the results and giving feedback to teachers, done by the leadership team or by teachers themselves. In doing appropriate lesson observation and analysis, appropriate criteria and rubrics are important. Schools received these together with the teacher actual profiles in the beginning of the piloting. From the consultations between school leadership teams and expert-coaches, it is evident that despite the high level of detail in the rubric describing levels and criteria, every school leader or teacher, without previous preparation and training, interpret teacher performance in the lesson differently. It can be discussed if this is due to the tradition that teachers have been evaluated summatively and not for development purposed. For example, in school 08_Z, school leadership team reported that teachers showed improvement of two levels higher, that have to be checked by expert-coaches. A solution for such situations would be to conduct joint lesson observations with expert-coaches and school leaders where they agree about the criteria and how to detect it; to have training for school leaders on how to analyse observed lessons. More experienced teachers could also be trained to do lesson analysis as a way to increase their capacity to give support to other teachers. The rubric should also be improved and adjusted to be more understandable for teachers and school leaders and used as self-assessment tool. Further research is needed for determining how such activities may strengthen the school capacity to develop teacher competence. When compiling the results on how teacher professional development is being planned, we can conclude that it is not personalized enough, which is one of the competence management model’s key elements. Only in two schools the involved teams set up teacher personalized development plans. In other schools, the teams don’t take into consideration that teacher performance and learning needs differ, which can be seen from their actual profiles. There are schools, that leave it to the teachers themselves to set their individual goals, but the teachers lack the necessary skills or motivation to do it objectively. For example, in school 03_T, the principal received the assessment results (the actual profiles) from expert-coaches and gave the them to each teacher expecting that teachers will be able to define their own development priorities. The leadership team delegated to the high performing teachers to lead other teacher groups, but it was not discussed 550 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 with these teacher team leaders what are the other teachers’ learning needs. As well as the competence development of these teachers were not planned. Joint seminars and written instructions for school leaders for further activities are not enough. The school teams expressed that having an expert-coach available for consultation in the school is an effective way of support. This is indicated by school 04_2, which would had reached better piloting results if collaboration with the expert-coach had been more active. Whereas in school 06_P, the combination of greater investment and interest from both leadership team and expert-coach proved to be decisive for the school leadership team’s growth that contributed to a  successful piloting of the model. Conclusions The best practices from the pilot schools show that the teacher competence management model can be implemented into school practice if the school is open to innovations and if the school leadership team is investing in teachers and generally interested in supporting teacher growth. On the other hand, the piloting results show activities done by the school leaders that indicate a lack of understanding on how to develop human resources. This has been indicated by previous research showing that school principals in Latvia do not use human resource management techniques systematically as they lack necessary skills and require special training for that (Daiktere, 2012). It is necessary to continue researching what are the current practices of school leaders and their effect on teacher practice and growth and on student learning results. It should be taken into account that school leaders contribute to student learning through their influence on other people or features of their school’s organizational features (Hallinger & Heck, 1998). The pilot schools set goals related to student self-directed learning (or self-regulated learning) which is in line with what has been pointed out as one of the cornerstones of school effectiveness (Scheerens, Luyten, Steen, & Luyten-de Thouars, 2007). The piloting of the teacher competence management model will continue in the autumn semester, 2019 in order to gain more insight in the model’s and its teacher competence assessment instruments’ applicability for school practice. It is still needed to explore the different factors that hinder or support the model’s implementation into school practice in Latvia. 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These changes are also applied to schools where teachers are required to work more with students and are given new responsibilities relating to management of the school. Also, the role of teachers in the classroom and the requirements for assessing teachers’ professional performance have changed significantly. Formal learning carried out in a structured, purpose-led process usually does not meet the real needs of teachers’ professional development, does not improve teachers’ professional performance in classroom and does not have direct positive influence on students’ learning outcomes. The formal learning of teachers is organised outside the real context teachers work in and does not allow them to reflect on their experience. Informal learning is offered as an alternative form of teachers’ professional development that includes individual and collective learning activities which are carried inside or outside the school and are based on learning from other professionals, participating in informal conversations or sharing experience without a specific learning goal and process manager. The aim of the literature review is to summarize the theoretical approaches of informal learning, focusing on several aspects of informal learning for teachers’ professional development: different ways how informal learning can be implemented inside the school; factors that promote and hinder teachers’ professional development through informal learning; the benefits and risks faced by teachers who are improving their professional competence by engaging in informal learning activities. Keywords: Formal learning; Informal learning; Professional development; Learning at the workplace. Introduction The new requirements in education determine important changes that are happening not only in the curriculum students have to study at school but also in the teaching methods and strategies which teachers have to use to meet these requirements. Depending on the fact how effectively teachers learn new strategies, gain an understanding of the principles of curriculum https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.40 Oskars Kaulens Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... 554 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 design and change their own perceptions about students’ learning, it is possible to make conclusions about the sustainability of educational reforms and their impact on the quality of education. Many educational reforms have failed because teachers have been indifferent or refusing to change according to their prior learning experiences as students and their attitudes towards continuous professional development (Hoekstra & Korthagen, 2011). Teachers’ professional development needs are directly determined not only by structural reforms taking place in educational system but also by the changes in professional environment. The environment at schools has become more complex and dynamic, characterized by the need to address more diverse and less structured problems, and hence greater uncertainty (McLagan, 2008). As a  result of these changes, the demands and responsibilities of teachers also have changed: teachers have to teach classes with an increasing number of students; there are more students with emotional, social and learning difficulties. Similarly, in schools, decisions are increasingly adopted in a decentralized way, with the direct involvement of teachers in school management issues (Lohman, 2000). Teachers need to improve their knowledge of curriculum and teaching methodology to ensure that students’ learning outcomes meet the modern requirements (Jurasaite–Harbison & Rex, 2013). In order to meet new learning needs of teachers, increase their motivation and provide a constructive feedback on their results, it is necessary to change the way teachers’ professional development is organized at the workplace. The traditional model of structured, formalized and purposefully directed teacher learning does not always provide the necessary skills and knowledge to help them teach students in accordance with the new requirements. Often, such development is carried out formally, without a direct long-term impact on teachers’ performance and students’ learning outcomes (Sprott, 2019). However, the main goal of teachers’ professional development is to help students to learn, to gain a diverse learning experience and improve their learning skills and academic achievements (DiPaola & Hoy, 2014). Informal learning is offered as an alternative form of teachers’ professional development model. It includes a  self-initiated, voluntary learning activities at the workplace where mutual interaction between teachers helps to improve their knowledge and skills on specific issues. Usually informal learning is not externally managed and structured process, it is based on intensive use of the previous work experience and reflection on it (Lohman, 2006). Studies conducted so far have concluded that about 90% of teachers’ real-time learning takes place informally, rather than through participation in structured learning activities (Lohman, 2000). 555Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... Methodology The full-text scientific articles available in the EBSCOhost database in English, published between 2010 and 2019, are used in the literature review. Scientific articles have been selected using the following keywords: informal learning AND professional development, AND teachers, AND school. According to the chosen keywords, 25 scientific articles have been identified in the database for the selected period of time, the content of which is related to the teachers’ informal learning at the workplace. 10  articles have been selected for in-depth analysis which are directly related to the informal learning of teachers inside the general schools. The literature review does not include the publications on teachers’ informal learning in other educational settings, such as higher educational institutions or online. Other scientific articles referenced in the selected articles and available in EBSCOhost or other free access databases have been used in the literature review. The use of these articles is necessary for a  deeper understanding of the process of informal learning inside the school, with a  reference to the authors who have started to research informal learning in the context of teachers’ professional development. The aim of the literature review is to explore the topicalities of informal learning in the general schools and to identify the key benefits and risks that informal learning can bring into professional development of teachers. To reach this goal, the insights expressed in the articles have been systematized and described in 4 categories: the characteristics and the forms of teachers’ informal learning at school; factors that promote and hinder informal learning at school; the benefits of informal learning at school; the challenges of informal learning at school. Teachers’ informal learning at the workplace The quality of education depends on how skilled and motivated teachers are to improve their professional knowledge and skills throughout all their career (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016). It is related to a rapidly changing professional environment, where new requirements for school graduates are appearing: students have to have collaborative skills, problem-solving skills, creative thinking, critical thinking etc. The teachers’ individual competence and professionalism determine how successful the reforms in the education system will be and how high the level of students learning outcomes will be (Cheng, 2017). During the previous decades there has been a  growing and continuous demand for teachers to improve their knowledge and skills on curriculum and teaching methodology (Jurasaite– Harbison & Rex, 2013). 556 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Teachers have to be ready to improve their professional performance, to challenge their existing perceptions and mindset about teaching and learning, and become learning agents for themselves and their students. Thus, the traditional way of teachers’ professional development, according to the principle “one size fits all” workshops, is no longer able to meet the real professional development needs of teachers (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015). Formal professional development is not capable to eliminate the growing gap between the knowledge and skills teachers need in the real working environment and those that can be learned through formal training activities (Tynjälä, 2008). Participation in formal learning activities (in-service training courses, seminars, lectures, workshops etc.) is still a common practice for teachers’ professional development in schools. However, the impact of formal learning experience on teachers’ performance in the classroom is limited. Researchers have concluded that teachers rarely use the methods and techniques they have learned in formal trainings (Wideen, Mayer-Smith & Moon, 1998). This is due to the fact that during formal learning activities there is no time for purposeful reflection on teachers’ professional activities to make a transfer from the new curriculum to their professional practice. Teachers report that they learn much more in their daily work with students, independently experimenting with teaching and learning strategies, assessing their impact on students’ learning outcomes and learning from their mistakes (Lohman & Woolf, 2001). Substantial part of the teachers’ professional learning takes place in the classroom, working with students where teachers spend the most of the time of their practice. Therefore, teachers have to be professionals who are learning from their previous experience (Lund, 2018), trying new strategies and reflecting on the results. Informal learning is the acquisition of new professional knowledge and the development of skills outside the structured and institutionalized learning environment. It takes place in the process of voluntary cooperation and exchange of experience, where employees of one organization interact and learn from each other. Informal learning does not involve systematic, pre-planned repetition of routine activities, it is not structured and often does not have clearly defined learning goals (Marsick, Watkins, Callahan & Volpe, 2009). The goal of informal learning is to provide continuous and goal-oriented professional development at the workplace, taking into account the real learning needs of the stakeholders and using the professional resources available within the organization (Tynjälä, 2008). Informal learning is characterized by indirect, unplanned and voluntary learning, which does not highlight the person who teaches the new content (Eraut, 2004). Informal learning is implemented as a part of a daily learning 557Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... process where teachers, through individual actions or collaboration, acquire the knowledge and skills they need in a  concrete professional situation. The goal of such learning activities is not to learn and implement specific curriculum, and it does not take place in a learning environment specifically designed for learning purposes. Informal learning  at school takes place through individual activities (getting acquainted with professional literature and observing classrooms of other teachers) and collective activities (conversations with colleagues, students and parents, mentoring programs, participation in teacher networks and learning groups) (Desimone, 2009). During the activities of informal learning teachers have an opportunity to choose their own learning goals as well as the learning strategies they are going to use. In the process of informal learning, participants set learning goals themselves, determine how these goals will be achieved, and evaluate how the goals have been achieved (Cross, 2007). Usually, such professional development is based on a  specific class or school context, which allows teachers to understand the real learning needs better, reflect on their experiences and learn from their colleagues (Richter, Kunter, Klusmann, Ludtke & Baumert, 2011). Thus, teachers who want to develop their competencies through informal learning have to understand the context of their school and have to be ready to reflect on their own experience and practice with other teachers. The goal of informal learning within a school is to make the knowledge and skills accumulated by individual people to a  wider range of professionals available through the elements of social interaction. In this way, knowledge is constructed in a specific context, so it is more commonly used because it is directly related to the participant’s personal experience than the knowledge acquired through formal learning outside the concrete context of the school (Eraut, 2004). Unlike formal learning, where the acquisition of new professional knowledge and skills is an act of individual behavior, informal learning takes place within a  learning community (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In the context of the school, informal learning is an act of social participation, where teachers are learning from their own previous experience and expertise, which has been accumulated in the organization. In the model of informal learning, the experience of each teacher acquires value of learning potential which other colleagues can use to meet their learning needs. Jurasaite–Harbison and Rex (2013) point out that informal learning takes place in several dimensions, for example, the authors distinguish proactive and reactive informal learning. In the framework of proactive learning, teachers themselves set their own learning goals; require regular advice and feedback from colleagues; independently seek and explore sources of information to prevent teaching-related problems. Meanwhile, 558 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 reactive informal learning is an unintentional professional activity where teachers respond to situations that have already taken place; they do not set their own learning goals and start to learn from their colleagues when problems have already occurred. The authors also separate the individual and social dimension of informal learning, where the first focuses on individual activities to improve one’s performance, while the other is dependent on collaboration with colleagues and joint participation in the assessment of collective experience. Teachers pursue their professional development through different informal learning activities: they are collaborating with schools’ leadership team and other teachers; sharing experience of teaching methods and techniques used with students; attending school meetings; observing classrooms of other colleagues; participating in learning group activities, etc. (Kwakman, 2003). In the school environment, informal learning also takes place between students and teachers, where both learn how to adapt, cooperate and respect each other. Teachers are thus acquainted with their students and understand their learning needs better (McNally, Blake & Reid, 2009). The above mentioned examples of informal learning provide intensive feedback, reception and use of feedback to improve the performance. However, teachers’ informal learning at school is not always structured or implemented as an autonomous learning process. School leadership team often formalizes and structures informal learning to ensure its regularity and long-term impact on students’ learning. Researches have shown that informal learning is more effective and consistent with school vision and goals if it is organized in a  more formal framework, such as learning projects, where teachers jointly address and analyze specific learning- related issues, learning from each other and finding common solutions (Poell , 2006). However, efforts to structure informal learning at school can disrupt existing social relationships among teachers and create a negative impact on mutual learning outcomes (Lohman, 2000). Factors influencing teachers’ informal learning at the workplace The effectiveness of teachers’ informal learning at school is influenced by individual factors related to teachers’ willingness and ability to evaluate their professional experience, readiness to learn from other colleagues’ experience and to use the feedback they receive to improve their performance. It is also affected by administrative factors related to the way in which professional development of teachers is organized and supervised at school, and what kind of professional resources are available to teachers to meet their current development needs (Carney, 2000). 559Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... Informal learning is a  multidimensional concept that includes organizational and personal elements as well as elements of interpersonal cooperation. Organizational factors are related to the availability of professional resources at school, such as the availability of the necessary information for teachers and the time available for them to learn from other colleagues; similarly, informal learning is influenced by the culture of the school’s internal organization and the existing relationships of trust between teachers (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016). Skills and knowledge, and the learning experience that teachers gain through informal learning at school, are influenced by the process of socialization that is based on the norms and values that exist within the school (Eraut, 2004). Personal factors determine the ability of teachers to develop new knowledge and experience, learning from the experience of other professionals, willingness to try new teaching strategies, and learn from their personal mistakes. Interpersonal co-operation factors, on the other hand, are related to how co-operation between teachers is developed and maintained inside the school and how teachers make common agreements about their professional development needs and learning goals for their students (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016). Informal learning is directly influenced by teachers’ willingness to work together with their colleagues, which is determined by their understanding of learning goals students need to achieve (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015). Lack of time is mentioned as one of the factors that can limit the outcomes of informal learning at school. The role and responsibilities of teachers have changed significantly over time, and teachers have more responsibilities that are not directly related to classroom work, so it is necessary to spend more time on purposeful professional development. Informal learning is effective if there is time that can be spent outside the classroom when teachers can meet for informal conversations, learn from each other and plan learning activities together (Lohman, 2006). It is important for teachers to have time and space where they can reflect on their experience and get to know other colleagues (Sprott, 2019). The physical environment and infrastructure at school have a  direct impact on the outcomes of informal learning for teachers. In situations where the physical distance between teachers’ classrooms is high, teachers’ access to mutual learning resources is restricted. As a  result, professional isolationism develops, where each teacher acts autonomously and solves problems independently regardless of the amount of experience and knowledge already accumulated at school (Sprott, 2019). In order to avoid the teachers’ isolationism, it is advisable to place closer teachers of the same grade or similar subjects in order to provide them an opportunity for informal consultations and exchange of experiences. 560 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The ability to learn from the experience of other professionals, both within and outside the school, directly determines the outcomes of informal learning. Researches have shown that teachers who are unable to interact with other colleagues to construct new knowledge and learn from others’ experience are lagging behind those who can do it (Slotte & Tynjala, 2003). Involvement of teachers in the informal learning process is determined by the open, positive and collaborative atmosphere at school and the readiness of teachers to engage with other colleagues (Wohlfahrt, 2018). In cases where the school internal environment is closed, and colleagues feel more like competitors than members of a unified learning community, informal learning becomes a formality without a direct impact on teachers’ performance in the classroom and students’ learning outcomes. It is also important for teachers to reflect on their experience and to receive feedback from others, because during the informal learning new knowledge is constructed by evaluating previous experience to make decisions about the improvements to be made in the future. Regardless of the way in which the  new knowledge is acquired, it is less important what teachers know, rather than how they can apply the acquired knowledge to new learning situations. In order to carry out this professional transfer, teachers need the skills to reflect on their experience, as well as receive and apply feedback in the short term to make specific improvements in their pedagogical practice, and systematically evaluate their progress in the long term (Eraut, 2004). School leadership activities are also crucial for creating an informal learning environment and achieving results. Higher results are achieved by schools where school management is focused on creating a  culture of teachers’ collaboration and demonstrates an example of continuous professional development through learning from others’ experiences (Cheng, 2017). School management, which helps teachers to recognize their professional development needs, encourages them to learn from the best practices and assesses teachers’ performance not only in terms of student learning, but also in teacher’s personal growth, creates a school as an effective learning community (Harris & Jones, 2010). For the school to become a  professional learning community with continuous professional development of teachers, a culture of trust in the school is needed that provides openness among teachers and the opportunity to learn from the mistakes that have been made (Vaessen, van den Beemt & de Laat, 2014). Researches have shown that teachers are better at their learning at school when school leadership and teachers have developed a  common vision about professional development, created a  system of shared responsibility for achieving goals, and maintained values and norms that ensure high quality social relationships among teachers (Jurasaite– Harbison & Rex, 2010). 561Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... Benefits of teachers’ informal learning at the workplace Teachers’ informal learning usually takes place at school, so teachers have the opportunity to learn in a real context, determining what content they want and how they are going to learn it. Teachers are given greater autonomy to define their own learning needs and they take full responsibility for the results of their professional development. Wohlfahrt (2018) points out that the biggest problem with formal professional development is that the curriculum that teachers study is not linked to a  specific context and is not based on the real learning needs of teachers. In contrast, informal learning provides a  direct link to the real challenges that teachers are facing in their everyday practice, so they are more open and motivated to learn how to solve these problems. As a  result of informal learning, the school is transformed into an effective learning organization where continuous professional development of teachers takes place, and each teacher’s previous experience is seen as a  value with important learning potential. In the learning organization, teachers are sharing their experiences and exchange pedagogical literature; they are helping to solve each other’s professional problems; teachers are having discussions about professional issues and jointly looking for ways how to improve their performance by learning from the best practices in the organization (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002). In schools that are based on the principles of a learning community, teachers are helping each other to identify the real needs of professional improvement (DuFour & Eaker, 1998) as a  result of an intensive exchange of experiences and reflection, providing the opportunity for them to learn practical and useful content. As a result of informal learning, the relationships of trust between teachers is strengthened and their sense of belonging to the community is promoted (Hanraets, Hulsebosch & de Laat, 2011). Informal learning is a  natural way for teachers to improve their professional skills, which shows the results in a long term. If formal learning is implemented in the form of individual learning events, such as lectures or seminars, informal learning is the result of everyday activities carried out by teachers within the school. This means that informal learning is a continuous process of development through which teachers develop their expertise, acquire the necessary knowledge and develop skills (Vaasen, van den Beemt & de Laat, 2014). That kind of learning leads to strong social relationships between teachers because every teacher is seen as a learning resource that can influence overall learning outcomes of the school. Informal learning offers a variety of learning opportunities for teachers where everyone can choose the one that suits them best. The professional development of teachers can happen as giving advice for other colleagues; 562 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 reflecting on their professional practice and analyzing the performance of other teachers; providing and receiving feedback from others; engaging in informal discussions on educational issues; commenting on opinions expressed by other professionals, etc. (Tammets, Pata & Laanpere, 2013). It means that informal learning is more flexible than formal learning and can be adapted to a wider range of teachers’ professional development needs (Eraut, 2004). For informal learning to be effective and to achieve goals, teachers need the skills to provide, receive and apply feedback to improve their performance, reflect on their own and other learning experiences, critically evaluate their professional activities, interact with others, and learn from their own and others’ experience. Thus, informal learning allows not only to apply but also to develop these skills, increasing the personal effectiveness of teachers. Teachers with a higher level of personal efficiency are better at planning and organizing their work, they are more open to new ideas, experiments and changes. They also show better results in working with students with learning difficulties (Van Veelen, Sleegers & Endedijk, 2017). Informal learning at school helps teachers to improve their reflection, self- organization, collaboration and social skills (Hanraets, Hulsebosch & de Laat, 2011). Unlike formal learning, which is often initiated by school management, informal learning is based on the personal initiative of teachers and is carried out on a  voluntary basis. In situations where teachers define their learning goals themselves, make decisions about strategies that will be used and choose partners to achieve these goals with, teachers take more responsibility for their professional development, which increases their motivation to learn. At the same time, it envisages the development of a  democratic school management system that stimulates the teachers’ participation in the learning process and school management, ensures responsibility for the achievement of school goals and motivates teachers to learn from the experience available in other professional contexts outside the school (Vaessen, van den Beemt & de Laat, 2014). The implementation of informal learning consumes less financial resources than the formal learning process, as it takes place in an unscheduled and random way, and the experience and knowledge already accumulated at school is used in the learning process. By learning in a formal way, the knowledge and skills acquired quickly become obsolete and do not meet the professional standard, so teachers must constantly look for new ways how to update these skills (van Veelen, Sleegers & Endedijk, 2017). The successful process of informal learning at school, on the other hand, involves continuous learning from each other, engaging in day-to- day duties and collaborating with colleagues. Informal learning at school 563Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... takes place using the infrastructure already available, rather than requires new infrastructure adapted specially for learning purposes. Challenges with teachers’ informal learning at the workplace Teachers’ informal learning at school is influenced by a  variety of factors, such as the school’s vision, learning traditions, the infrastructure available for learning, school management, and the school’s professional relationships with teachers (Jurasaite–Harbison & Rex, 2010). Teachers often have limited opportunities to organize their professional development according to their learning needs and goals, which is limited by the formal framework teachers work in. Not always the vision of schools’ management is consistent with the teachers’ vision of what knowledge they should acquire and what skills they need to develop to become better professionals. This may lead to situations where training activities offered by school leaders are imposed on teachers and do not happen on a voluntary basis. Unlike formal learning, where the curriculum is strictly defined, the desired outcomes are defined and a  specific learning strategy is chosen, informal learning is a less structured process, the results and effects of which are difficult to measure. Ideas and solutions that teachers gain through informal learning do not always produce immediate results: they do not change the teacher’s performance and do not improve students’ learning outcomes, and their impact takes time to be measured (Evans, 2019). Thus, the impact of informal learning on teachers’ practice is difficult to measure and to determine whether and to what extent participation in such activities has improved teachers’ professional performance in the classroom. The professional development of teachers is not related to learning of new content or improving specific skills, but it is also determined by the values and personal attitudes teachers have towards continuous learning and improvement of their professional competence. The learning climate established at school is important: if teachers value mutual cooperation and learning from each other, they will be more willing to engage in informal learning activities (Lohman, 2006). Teachers are used to participate in formal learning activities that is why there is a risk that teachers will not engage with colleagues and will not take a part in collective activities at school, thus reducing their informal learning opportunities. Informal learning means that teachers acquire new knowledge and skills through active dialogue and collective reflection (Sprott, 2019), which is not possible if teachers support learning that is previously planned, externally managed and structured. Teachers’ attitudes towards their professional development are also influenced by their own previous experience as participants in the learning process. Here are important teachers’ personal 564 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 perceptions of how new knowledge is acquired and how involved participants should be in order for learning to happen: as a passive listener or an active partner (Rigelman & Ruben, 2012). Teachers who prefer to learn by acquiring readymade knowledge from other professionals will not participate in informal learning activities where learning is a  process of active knowledge construction and includes evaluation of existing practices in the organization for personal growth (Paavola, Lipponen & Hakkarainen, 2004). Informal learning requires individual responsibility of teachers for identifying their learning needs, setting learning goals and selecting strategies to achieve these goals. The intellectual capacity of teachers to engage in learning-related issues is not always sufficient. Informal learning relies on teachers’ ability to organize and manage their own learning without the direct support of others. However, not all teachers have advanced self-regulation skills (Marsick et al., 2008), which lead them to rely more on the claims of others rather than on their own actions. In the school context, the effectiveness of informal learning is diminished by situations where teachers do not have the necessary knowledge and skills that are expected of them at school and national level (Lohman, 2000), such as the ability to provide, receive and use feedback, learn from their own and colleagues’ experiences etc. As informal learning at school usually happens as a result of teachers’ interaction, its effectiveness is determined by the quality of relationships among teachers and past experience of learning from each other. Harris & Jones (2010) point out that teachers’ learning at school is hampered by negative previous experience with non-professional feedback and evaluation of performance after visiting classrooms. The informal learning process at school is not monitored and managed externally, so it is up to colleagues to build mutual trust and respect for long-term informal learning. As a result of negative cooperation, teachers consider informal learning to be an inefficient time-consuming exercise that has no direct impact on their professional performance and student learning outcomes. In the context of informal learning, good practices are highlighted at school and teachers are learning from each other’s previous experiences. However, there is a risk that the exchange of experience may result in an unwanted habits and practices that are difficult to monitor and eradicate (Dale & Bell, 1999). Informal learning is not guided and monitored, nor does it have clearly defined learning objectives and reference systems, so teachers take on practices that do not always improve students learning experience or help teachers better fulfill their professional responsibilities. Slotte, Tynjälä & Hytönen (2004) emphasize that informal learning is not sufficient to provide all the necessary knowledge and skills, because 565Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... not all of the competences are already present in the organization at the time of learning. In the context of teachers’ professional development, it means that there is a  risk of internal circulation of past experience that preserves existing practice at school, maintains the status quo and does not provide professional growth. Therefore, informal learning needs to be complemented with the elements and content of formal learning (Vaessen, van den Beemt & de Laat, 2014). Although informal learning provides teachers with specific knowledge and skills, they are linked to a  specific situation and are not widely used, as learning in one context is difficult to transfer to another situation (Tynjälä, 2008). Another limitation of informal learning is that usually such professional development happens unconsciously. Learning participants are unaware of the specific activities and ways in which they have acquired new knowledge, developed skills and attitudes (Simons & Ruijters, 2004). By learning informally, teachers cannot assess their learning experiences, and it is not clear which cooperation practices should be stimulated and continued at the school, and which cause undesirable effects and should be discontinued. Informal learning usually takes place invisibly and unknowingly, so learners often do not perceive it as a  learning (Eraut, 2004). This creates the prerequisites for mutual learning and exchange of experiences at school to be seen as a formality rather than a real opportunity for concrete professional development. Conclusions Teachers’ informal learning at workplace can happen in different forms: observing classrooms of colleagues; providing and receiving feedback; engaging in an exchange of experience; reading pedagogical literature; participating in learning groups, etc. However, the potential of informal learning in schools is not being fully exploited, because the teachers’ learning has been developed as more formalized, externally managed and structured process, although a  large proportion of teachers’ professional knowledge and skills are acquired in collaboration with their peers and reflecting on their previous experience. Summarizing the scientific literature, it can be concluded that in the context of informal learning, teachers themselves choose the objectives and formats of their professional development and partners from which they are going to learn. Such learning improves teachers’ personal effectiveness and motivation for learning, promotes school membership, develops reflection, collaboration and feedback skills. Similarly, informal learning allows to adapt the content and process of learning to the real development needs of each teacher, while delegating responsibility for learning outcomes. 566 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 However, in the context of informal learning, there is a  risk that teachers take over unwanted professional practices and habits that do not improve their performance or have negative effects on students’ learning outcomes. Informal learning is often unintentional and is a  by-product of other activities, so it does not always have a  specific purpose and a clearly defined criteria for measuring the impact. Such teacher learning is not always recognized as an effective, full-fledged and goal-oriented professional development. In order to study teachers’ informal learning at school, the researchers use qualitative research methods – deep interviews with teachers or school management, analysis of teacher reflection magazines, or focus group discussions –, but they do not always provide objective information about the impact of informal learning on teachers’ performance and student learning outcomes. Questions for futher discussion It is important to combine the elements of formal and informal learning in order to ensure goal-oriented and effective professional development of teachers at school. If formal learning provides teachers with new general knowledge and skills, informal learning facilitates their transfer to daily work and application in specific learning situations. However, the challenge for the future is to change the usual practice in schools, where teachers’ professional development is seen as a formalized, time-controlled and externally managed learning process, rather than a  mutual learning whereby teachers themselves voluntarily take responsibility for setting learning goals and developing an action plan to achieve them. It is important to strengthen the professional competence of school leadership team in order to create an effective, goal-oriented informal learning system at school. It is the school management’s responsibility to demonstrate examples of good practice by learning from colleagues, providing and receiving feedback and facilitating regular exchange of experiences between teachers. Therefore, the question is whether the school management’s competence in designing such a  system is sufficient for informal learning to become a  daily practice rather than a  formality without a  direct impact on teachers’ performance and student learning outcomes. The prerequisite for informal learning is the personal motivation of teachers and their interest in continuous learning, which is determined by their previous learning experience and attitudes towards their professional development. In order to develop their competences through informal learning, teachers must be prepared to use the best practices available at 567Oskars Kaulens. Informal Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development ... school, learn from other professionals, and set self-directed learning goals. 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Vanblaere, B., Devos, G. (2016) Relating school leadership to perceived professional learning community characteristics: A multilevel analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education. No. 57, 26–38. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating Communities of Practice. Boston, MASS: Harvard Business School Press. Wideen, M., Mayer-Smith, J., & Moon, B. (1998). A critical analysis of the research on learning to teach: Making the case for an ecological perspective on inquiry. Review of Educational Research. 68, 130–178 Wohlfahrt, U. M. (2018) Primary Teacher Education in Rural Cameroon: Can Informal Learning Compensate for the Defiencies in Formal Training? Africa Education Review. 15:3, 1–20. 570 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 REREADING FRESHMAN-YEAR BLOGS: THIRD-YEAR PRE-SERVICE STUDENT TEACHERS REVIEW THEIR FIRST-YEAR REFLECTIVE BLOGS Liat Biberman-Shalev Levinsky College of Education, Israel ABSTRACT In recent years, there has been increasing evidence that the use of blogs in diverse academic contexts is becoming more commonplace, particularly in teacher education. In this context, the blog is seldom used as a study journal in which pre-service student teachers document relevant information from college courses and practical work at the school, publish reflective records, voice their opinions regarding educational issues, and express their feelings and emotions vis-à-vis academic study. Moreover, since scholars have portrayed the  blog as a  space where discourse can occur among learners, between learners and instructors, as well as between learners and the  larger internet community, it seems that teacher education may consider blogs to serve as platforms for encouraging both online and face- to-face communication and social interaction. The current study examines student teachers’ perceptions regarding the contribution of the blogs they had written earlier in the teacher education program. To this end, 14 student teachers who were about to complete their third year of studies were asked to reread their freshmen year blogs. Next, participants were interviewed about the  contribution of the  blog to their training. Qualitative analysis of the  interviews revealed three major ways in which the  blog writing assignment had affected the  teacher-education process, according to their retrospective views. Specifically, these participants found that the blog writing assignment was effective for the purposes of reflection, developing writing skills, and peer learning and sharing. Recommendations for teacher-educators regarding the contribution of blogs are discussed. Keywords: Blogs, Reflection, Writining skills, Teacher education. Introduction The integration of various types of blogging activities in the  course of teacher-education programs has frequently been addressed through empirical studies. The  majority of the  research that examined the  value of blog integration in the  teacher-education process referred, for example, to conducting a  blog during the  teaching practicum, recording one’s reflections after a  particular experience in the  field, blogging as a component of a course on peer learning, or for the purpose of encouraging https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.41 Liat Biberman-Shalev Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre- Service ... 571Liat Biberman-Shalev. Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre-Service ... reading (Nambiar & Thang, 2016; Tang & Lam, 2014; Top et al., 2010), Yukselturk  & Inan, 2010). The  goal of the  current study was to examine student teachers’ retrospective perceptions regarding the  value they attributed to the blogging activity in the teacher-education process. Literature Review Blogs A blog (short for Weblog) is an Internet site in which people can keep an online journal, by logging in – or posting – their experiences, personal news, and items of interest. These posts can then be perused by Internet surfers, who are invited to read and react to the  content of the  posts by posting their own comments (referred to as talkbacks). Those who write and record their thoughts and experiences are called bloggers and the entire collection of blogs on the  Internet is referred to as the blogosphere. There are three characteristics that are common to most blogs: they contain a chronological narrative presented in reverse order (whereby the  latest blog post is the first on the page); the contents in the post are related to the blogger’s real-life experiences and thoughts; and posts are updated and uploaded to the blog at regular intervals (Sim & Hew, 2010). It is customary to classify blogs according to four dimensions: (1) personal-individual (log network: personal online diary of one blogger), (2) private-public (group support: team of bloggers discussing personal matters), (3) topically-individual (column: a  blogger’s personal interpretation of a  new theme with each entry), and (4) topically-public (shared content: community of bloggers writing about local and global social matters) (Krishnamurthy, 2002). All blogs share the following characteristics: individual ownership (the blogger is responsible for publishing and editing content, determining readers’ rights, and designing the  blog), hyperlinked post structure (the blog permits the  creation of links to external information), updates displayed in reverse chronological order and the  creation of an internal blog information search according to different categories and tags). The Value of Blogging in Teacher Education Empirical studies have demonstrated a  variety of possible advantages of integrating blogs into the  process of teacher education. Nonetheless, findings have not led to a  decisive conclusion (Tang, 2013). On the  one hand, it was found that blogging can help improve student teachers’ reading, writing, and critical thinking skills, and that there is benefit to providing student teachers with this platform (Biberman-Shalev, 2018; Deng & Yuen, 2011; Osman & Koh, 2013; Stoszkowski & Collins, 2017). Furthermore, 572 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 integrating blogging activities into the  teacher education process allows for flexibility in terms of the time and location in which the learning takes place, and it has been shown to increase learning satisfaction, improve academic achievements, and contribute to a more profound understanding of the  materials learned, as well as offering an opportunity to share experiences with lecturers and peers (Chu et al., 2012; Kirkwood & Price, 2014). On the other hand, there is evidence that blogging is not an effective means for advancing the  teacher process, especially as this pertains to the development of higher-order reflective practices (Jones & Ryan, 2014; Xie et al., 2008). A few studies have indicated that blogging has a  unique influence in terms of strengthening student teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. Thus, for example, a study conducted in Switzerland found that student teachers who kept a blog focusing on problem solving in the course of their practicum indicated a  higher degree of self-efficacy compared to their peers who reported on their experience only at the end of the practicum. Researchers’ explanation for this finding was that by documenting their ideas for solving problems, student-teachers felt they had more control over the practicum experience (Petko et al., 2017). Based on this review of the  literature, it appears that the  majority of studies that examined the  value of blog integration in the  teacher- education process referred to the  use of blogs at a  given point in time. Frequently, however, once the practicum or the theoretical course is over, the blog is archived and forgotten. The focus of the current study was on the student-teachers’ retrospective views of the blogging experience and its contribution to their professional training. Hence, the  following research question was formulated: • From the vantage point of retrospective reflection, what were third-year student-teachers’ impressions of and what value did they attribute to the blogging activity in which they partook in their freshman year? Methods The methodology employed in the  current study was the  naturalist- qualitative paradigm, rendering a  phenomenological, retrospective longitudinal study (Flick, 2004). This was considered the  most suitable approach for examining the  retrospective perceptions of student-teachers regarding the value of the blogging activity conducted in their first year in the program. Retrospective studies ask participants to look back at events and issues experienced in the past. The principal instruments used to collect data in this type of naturalistic study are interviews and conversations, documents, memos, and written logs (Creswell, 2005). 573Liat Biberman-Shalev. Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre-Service ... Background of the Study The study was conducted in a  teacher-education college in Israel. The training program is three years long and includes theoretical courses, courses on the  teaching of various disciplines, and a  practicum, which is conducted at a  specific school, once a week throughout the  three-year period. The first-year practicum of the student teachers in the current study was conducted in an elementary school, where they spent an entire day once a week for a period of two semesters (a total of 24 days of practicum). In that year, their practical assignments included planning a  one-on-one lesson with a  school student (by the end of the year, an additional pupil joined the lesson), carrying out the lessons they had planned, and receiving feedback about the lesson from the pedagogical counselor and from peers. In addition, the  student-teachers conducted observations and met with other staff members to plan an educational activity at the school. The entire practicum, including all of its components, was documented in the form of a personal blog. These blogs were not published for the  perusal of Internet readers in general, but rather could be accessed only through the  course website, featured on the  college’s online platform, a  Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE). One of the reasons for keeping the blogs closed to the general public and open only to other members of the course had to do with maintaining the rules of ethics, so as not to reveal information about the  school, the  pupils, or the  staff. At the  same time, there was concern that publicizing the reflections of student-teachers would be detrimental to the  practicum process. Course participants were asked to write a blog post once a week, reflecting on their specific experiences. Occasionally, photographs and video clips taken during the practicum, as well as links to other relevant websites, were also posted to their blogs. In the  current study, the  focus is on two points in time in the  course of the  teacher-education program. The  first point in time was during the  participants’ freshman-year practicum at an elementary school. In the course of that year, the researcher fulfilled the function of pedagogical counselor for this class of student-teachers and provided weekly feedback to their blog posts. The  second point in time was towards the  end of the participants’ third and final year in the program, i.e., following three years of theoretical study and practical experience. In the  course of the participants’ third year, the researcher was not involved in any aspect of the group’s learning or teaching experience. The researcher approached the  original group towards the  end of the  second semester of their third year and asked them to participate in a study that required each of them to go back and reread their own blog, in which they had reflected on their first-year practicum experience. Next, each participant was interviewed 574 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and asked about the  usefulness of keeping a  blog in their first year of the program. Participants and Sampling Participants were 14 student-teachers who were completing their third year of the  teacher-training program. All were women affiliated with the secular Jewish sector. Their ages ranged between 22 and 27 years, and they all had focused on preparing to teach at the elementary-school level. They taught a range of disciplines: five taught science classes, four taught math, three Bible studies, and two taught literature. Student-teachers in their first year of the program do not practice teaching in their particular discipline, but rather at this first stage, they all teach language arts; only in the second and third years of the program do they engage in a practicum involving their particular discipline. Participants were recruited through a convenience sampling method (Cohen et al., 2007; Creswell, 2005). Data Collection and Analysis The process of data collection for this study was conducted in two phases. In the  first phase, the  student-teachers were asked to return to the blog they had written in their freshman year using the college platform. In the  second phase, the  researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with each of the participants. The interview questions referred to several aspects that could retrospectively shed light on the value of the blogging activity in the context of the  teacher-education program. To ensure the  participants’ privacy as well as their understanding of the  research in general, they all received an explanation regarding the  study and its goals, and the  anonymity of the  participants (Cohen et al., 2007 ; Spradley, 1979); subsequently, they all indicated their willingness to participate. It is important to note that at the  time of the  study, the  researcher was no longer acting as the  pedagogical counselor to this group of students, had completed their evaluations two years earlier, and at the  time of data collection had no other teaching relationship with the participants. In addition, the recruited student-teachers were told that they could choose whether or not to participate in the  study and could withdraw at any time if they wished to do so. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the relevant college. Data Analysis Data were analyzed inductively, according to Richards (2009). The data retrieved were analyzed in two stages: in the  first stage, a  preliminary exploratory analysis was conducted, which included reading the transcribed 575Liat Biberman-Shalev. Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre-Service ... interviews. Thus, a preliminary impression was formed and major themes were explored, taking into account possible organizational frameworks as well as the possibility that additional data might be needed. In the second stage, the interview transcripts were coded, so as to reveal major categories and subcategories or domains (Creswell, 2005). Results The interviews conducted with third-year student-teachers after they went back and reread the  blog posts that they had written in their freshman year revealed three major ways in which the  blog writing assignment had affected the  teacher-education process, according to their retrospective views. Specifically, these participants found that the  blog writing assignment was effective for the purposes of reflection, developing writing skills, and peer learning and sharing. Reflection Twelve of the  14 participants noted retrospectively that the  blog provided a  platform that helped advance their reflective and writing abilities. They especially emphasized that in the first year of their program, writing blog posts was a new and challenging type of assignment, one that they often times resented. However, in retrospect, they considered their reflective writing in the blog as an important basis for their current state of professional development. Thanks to the  reflective writing I did on the  blog, I was able to gain important insights regarding my experience and my educational views, which were further developed and formed through the  years. [of the  program]. Although the  reflective process was challenging at first, it soon became part of the  routine, and helped me develop metacognitive reflection skills. At this point in time, I can clearly state that reflective analysis is an inseparable part of my experience and contributes to my ability to learn from experience, gain insights for future reference, and to pinpoint important issues that I wish to improve on or maintain. Most of all, it enables me to consider many aspects simultaneously. Similarly, others noted, “Returning to the  blog led me to understand the  extent to which reflection was central to my learning and influenced my development process in a positive and significant manner;” and “The first-year blogging assignment served as a basis for the process I underwent. I think it was important in terms of reflective analysis, because by setting a firm basis, I was able to take it forward.” One of the participants described the link between the blogging activity and the development of her reflective abilities: 576 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 I believe that reporting my thoughts through the blog helped me learn to express myself and formulate my thoughts intuitively, to process my feelings and the difficulties I encountered in various situations. Afterwards, I was able to think over the  insights I had gained, consider alternatives, and suggest steps and changes. I think that the blog helped me develop my reflective abilities. It appears that for the  majority of the  participants, the  blogging was recognized as a  significant tool for advancing reflective assessment skills. This finding coincides with those of other previous studies, which found that integrating blog writing in the  course of teacher education can help develop reflective analysis (Deng & Yuen, 2011; Harland & Wondra, 2011). Writing Skills Twelve of the  14 participants noted retrospectively that the  blogging assignment contributed to their motivation to write. On the one hand, this motivation was associated with the external aspect of a required assignment that formed part of the practicum: “In the first year, I found it difficult to write, but I knew I had to write blog posts as it was a requirement during the  practicum.” On the  other hand, the  motivation came from an inner source, such as the  need for self-expression: “The blog motivated me to write because it enabled me to express myself in a manner that I chose and not in a prescribed way.” Another participant noted, “I felt that the blog provided a  format in which I could express my thoughts and feelings without holding back, knowing that whoever would read my posts would not be looking to critique them.” Some of the participants noted that the blog helped improve their writing skills; they associated this improvement with the fact that the writing was meant to address a familiar audience: My writing skills improved significantly because of the  blog. I reread my blog posts from the beginning of the first year and was amazed to find a poor vocabulary, spelling mistakes, and lack of proper punctuation, all of which posed a sharp contrast to my writing skills nowadays. I knew from the start that I would have to improve my writing and I knew I didn’t want to feel embarrassed to let others read my posts. Five of the participants claimed that that the blog writing assignment also helped them improve their academic writing skills, used in essays and assignments, and they associated this process with the  development of language skills in general, which is an integral part of studying in an academic institution. “The more I wrote in the blog, the more my wording and language improved significantly. This, in and of itself, helped develop my academic writing skills and my ability to write academic papers in my various courses.” These findings coincide with those of previous studies, 577Liat Biberman-Shalev. Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre-Service ... which found that blogging helps promote writing skills among students in a teacher-education program (Biberman-Shalev, 2018; Kosnik et al., 2016). Peer Learning and Sharing Seven of the  14 participants noted retrospectively that for them the  blog highlighted the  importance of sharing as a  preliminary step to peer learning. Thus, for example, “Through the  blog. I learned the  value of peer learning. Reading each other’s blogs enabled us to open up to new ideas that we could try in the course of the practicum.” Everything that was posted to the  blogs helped form our opinions, thoughts, and educational perceptions. This is one of the  things that was very useful about the blog writing, especially if you felt stuck and needed a fresh idea for your lesson. One of the  student-teachers claimed that the blog was useful for peer learning, because it led her to understand that any event that took place in the course of the practicum could be examined from various points of view. Sometimes, when I read a post written by someone else, I found that she had a different view of a particular event from our practicum and so she drew different conclusions. Sometimes reading such posts even changed my own perception of what had happened. This finding is related to those of several studies that found that integrating blog writing in the  teacher-education program helps promote a  supportive learning community and creates a  safe space for sharing knowledge and information (Duarte, 2015; Tang & Lam, 2014). Discussion and Conclusion The use of blogs as part of the teacher-education process has been one of the foci of recent empiric studies which seek to improve the training process and adapt it to 21st century requirements. In this context, the current study aimed to examine retrospectively the effectiveness of the blogging activity assigned to student-teachers in their first year of the program, in an effort to gain an in-depth understanding of its long-term impact on participants in the teacher-education program. The findings of the  study revealed student-teachers’ retrospective perceptions of the type of impact that the blogging activity had on them, in the context of their training program, i.e., reflection, writing, and peer learning and sharing. The most frequently mentioned category was that of reflection. Upon returning to their blogs, participants were able to recognize that in their first year, they had not adequately understood the importance of reflection as a  teaching practice; in fact, they had perceived it as an unnecessary burden. From the  vantage point of a  later point in their 578 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 studies, they were able not only to identify the importance of this practice, but also to recognize that the blogging exercise assigned in their first year constituted a structural basis for developing and advancing this practice as part of their professional activity. Some of the  participants retrospectively perceived the  blog was an activity that promoted the  quality of their writing skills in general. Advancing writing skills is also related to external motivation, given that the  blogging was a  required assignment and that the  posts were read by the  pedagogic counselor and by peers. Furthermore, the  writing was perceived also as an internal motivation, driven by the  desire to express oneself and air the emotions that surfaced in the course of the practicum. These findings coincide with those of previous studies (Deng & Yuen, 2011; Kosnik et al., 2016). Another major aspect of the value of blogging as perceived retrospectively was the opportunity to learn and share with one’s peers. Approximately half of the participants recognized retrospectively that the blogging activity led them to understand the importance of peer learning, and the advantages of sharing knowledge and information (Duarte, 2015; Morgan, 2015). In summary, observing these findings and the  vantage point provided by hindsight, it is possible to cautiously claim that a blogging activity that accompanies student-teachers’ first year of practicum may serve as the basis for inculcating reflective thinking and writing and advancing writing skills in general. The  implications of this conclusion are that blogs can have a  long-term and valuable impact on the students in the teacher-education program. Another advantage of the  blogging activity is that it enables student-teachers to experience first-hand the benefits of peer learning and sharing, which is brought into play when the  exercising of certain skills takes place in cyberspace. These conclusions emphasize the important role of teacher educators. Teacher educators who integrate blogs during the first year of the  program may provide a  platform that helps establish a  basis for practicing and improving both reflective practices and writing skills, which in turn leads students to understand the  importance of reflection as an essential tool, practice their academic writing skills, and internalize the significance of peer learning and sharing. It should be noted that the  current study is not without limitations. First, the number of participants was relatively small and all participants were women. Second, it is possible that the participants’ prior relationship with the researcher influenced their responses, despite the efforts to design the study in a manner that avoids such bias. Future studies could examine the  impact of returning to the  blog within shorter time intervals, for example, at the end of the first year of the teacher-education program, and then compare the impact of this retrospective activity at various stages. 579Liat Biberman-Shalev. Rereading Freshman-Year Blogs: Third-Year Pre-Service ... References Biberman-Shalev, L. (2018). Personal blogs or communal blogs? Pre-service teachers’ perceptions regarding the  contribution of these two platforms to their professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 253–262. Chu, S. K. W., Chan, C. K. K., & Tiwari, A. F. Y. (2012). Using blogs to support learning during internship. Computers and Education, 58(3), 989–1000. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6th Ed.). 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Internet and Higher Education, 11, 18–25. 581Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TEACHER’S MOTIVATION FOR MASTER DEGREE PROGRAM IN EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES IN LATVIA Dita  Nīmante University of Latvia, Latvia Maija Kokare University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Since October 2018 the  University of Latvia alongside with three other higher education institutions (University of Liepaja, University of Daugavpils and Rēzekne Academy of Technologies) have been involved in the  European Social Fund project 8.2.1 which aims to reduce the  fragmentation of study programs in the  field of education, pedagogy and sports in Latvia by closing a number of existing programs and developing new programs to provide conceptually new development of teacher-oriented teacher education in Latvia. As a part of the project the new Master level program “Educational sciences” being developed. The  study aims identify teachers’ motivations to study in the  Master level program “Educational sciences”. The  study’ s methodology included examining data both from interviews with the  heads/ or deputies of the  eight mainstream schools (different regions and types of schools), recent teachers with a  Master’s degree in general education, and surveys administered for educators and the students from bachelor level teacher education programs. As results indicate that the  motivation of teachers to study in the  Master level program is primarily intrinsic one which is consistent with international research. However, it would significantly facilitate studies if opportunities were provided to study for the state funded resources. Teachers extrinsic motivation to study the  Master’s level program in the  education is closely associated with existing political, socio-economic, cultural and educational characteristics of Latvia’s current state and demands from society. Keywords: Master of Educational sciences, Teacher motivation, Future professional development. Introduction Since October 2018, the  University of Latvia alongside with three other Higher Education institutions (University of Liepaja, University of Daugavpils and Rezekne Academy of Technologies) have been involved in the  European Social Fund project 8.2.1. The  project aims to reduce the  fragmentation of the higher education study programs in the field of https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.42 Dita  Nīmante, Maija Kokare Teacher’s Motivation for Master Degree Program ... 582 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 education, pedagogy and sports in Latvia, by closing a number of existing programs and developing conceptually new programs. Particularly, there will be closed 7 Master level programs during period of 2021–2023 at the  faculty of Education, Psychology and Art at University of Latvia and instead of them there will be developed two new Master level programs. One of those Master level programs is “Educational sciences”, whose primary target audience are teachers. The Program development began in October 2018 and continues until September 2019. The new program development always has been influenced by many stakeholders, internally and externally. It is a  pressure from society for the Master programme in education to contribute both to the qualification of individual participants and to promote changes in the  current school culture and structure. The  society hopes that those who complete the  Master level course will become “change makers in the  school”. As we know from the  research (Snoek, Enthoven, Kessels, Volman, 2017) it is possible to connect professional development of teachers in the Master level program and school development at the  same time. The  society has high demands on qualified teachers. The  new standard based reforms in Latvia influences it particularly. There is a  new demand for teacher professional development as means to enable them to reflect on and critique their own performances, create their own knowledge and attain professional autonomy the same time. Thus, designing the academic Master level education programs, especially for teachers, has high complexity. The  Master program for teachers is not a  straight forward knowledge transformation. Those programs should be teacher oriented and focused, they have to answer to the  learners needs and to be based on teachers current experiences, also should take in consideration the current school’s as organization’s needs as well. What is known from the  research that the  motivation of teachers to participate in programs is an essential element that should be taken into consideration when planning the  Master level continuing professional developing/professional learning program (Beresford-Dey, Holme, 2018). A review of theoretical literature reveals that studies related to students’ motivations for attending a  specific programme have been conducted for many years, yet there is no extensive research on motivation to study in the  Master’s level programs (Bozek, B., Raeymaeckers, Spooren, 2017), even less on teachers’ motivation to study at Master’s level programs in educational sciences. The latest research that have been conducted internationally, for example, the research in Vietnam (Nghia, 2018) reveals 14 motivations to study in the Master level programs in education. The results of the  study show that students choose to study the  Master level programme due to 583Dita  Nīmante, Maija Kokare. Teacher’s Motivation for Master Degree Program ... their passion for learning, the need to acquire knowledge and skills relevant to their targeted/current job, or to challenge their academic competence. They were strongly motivated to attend the Master’s programmes also due to employment-related motivations, such as finding a well-paid job, meeting employers’ demands for postgraduate qualifications, to get a promotion at their future work, or to continue to be competitive in the labour market. In the research conducted by Israeli scientists (Arar, et al., 2018) there were found that the  highest rankings motivation was found for teacher’s self- development, but the  next highest ranking was given requirements such as the desire for a higher salary, or motivation induced by pressure from their work places and surroundings. The comparative study for three post- soviet countries – Romania, Poland and Latvia was conducted to find out the motives of student teachers to study in Master’ s program. (Kowalczuk- Walędziak, et al., 2017) The  main motives expressed by the  student teachers were to gain deeper knowledge and skills in the field of education, along with enhancing personal development and professional development. The results provide an understanding that the research can be explained by self –determination theory. The authors Edvard Deci and Richard Rayens argue that people have intrinsic desire to explore themselves, understand and assimilate aspects of their environment. This proactive motivation is present from the  very early stages of development, does not depend on external pressures. «People are said to be motivated to the extent that they intend to accomplish something”  – that is, to the  extent that they have a purpose» (Deci, Ryan, 1994, p. 3). Intrinsic motivation helps the natural human propensity to learn and assimilate (Ryan, Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation results in high-quality learning and creativity. Therefore, intrinsic motivation for learning would always be the most important. At the  same time extrinsic motivation which can reflect external control or true self-regulation are important for learning too. As it was concluded by both authors after their empirical research that both – intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are important for optimal learning (Deci, Ryan, 1994). As found in studies (Nghia, 2018, Arar, et al., 2018), teachers’ motivation to study in the Master’s program is primarily intrinsic, but the importance of external motivation should not be underestimated. So far there has been published comparative study examining Polish, Romanian and Latvia’s student teacher’s perspective to study in Master level programs (Kowalczuk-Walędziak, et al., 2017). The part of the mentioned research questioner was devoted to motives for choosing master’s program. But there have been not published research specifically concerning teacher’s motivation to study in Master level program in Latvia, therefore understanding teachers’ study motivations in Master level program can be used as a  guide to develop the  teacher centred master level programme. 584 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The aim of the article is to identify the teachers’ motivations to study in Master level program “Educational sciences”. The researchers explore the  motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) of teachers to study in the Master’s programs in education science and provide suggestions to be taken into account by designing the  comprehensive Master level program from that. Methodology The study was conducted as a mixed method case study. It took place in Latvia from 2018, October to 2019, May, alongside the development of the Master level program “Educational sciences” in the University of Latvia. At first phase it included 14 semi structured interviews with the  heads or deputy-heads of 8 mainstream schools (different regions and types of schools) and 2 teachers recently obtained the  Master’s degree. There were studied “School quality indicators” (233) alongside. After analyses of theoretical literature and acquired results in the  first phase (results from semi structured interview and analyses of “School quality indicators”) there were developed a questioner (see Figure 1) and organized a  survey (N=186) administered for educators and the students from bachelor level teacher education programs. Figure 1. Research design The survey included 33 questions. In this paper there are analysed four questions related to teacher motivation to study in the Master level program. The  survey was designed in Google platform and was distributed online through several channels – emails, Facebook, WhatsApp. The University of Latvia and the project partners participated in the distribution of survey. There were set time limits (three weeks) for distribution and data collection of the survey. After receiving the data there were used descriptive statistical data processing method and descriptive analyses. 585Dita  Nīmante, Maija Kokare. Teacher’s Motivation for Master Degree Program ... Participants of survey. Majority of survey’s respondents were in at the  age from 25 up to 50 years old (together 65,4%), which is the main target audience’s age for the Master level studies. Majority of respondents have a  working experience from 5 years up to 20 years at school (See Figure 2). Figure 2. Respondents’ current work experience in the education The main part of the respondents are employed in the primary (34,4%) or in the secondary school (21,5%). 41,4% of respondents admitted that they are interested to study in the Master’s level program, only 8,6% of respondents responded that they are not interested for future studies in the Master’s level programs. 37,6% of respondents answered, that they already have Master degree. The data reveals that most of the  teachers who do not have the  Master’s level education are interested for their further studies. Results Results of the 1st phase The  researchers started by studying externally formulated quality indicators according to which the quality of every educational institution in Latvia is described and evaluated (SEQS/IKVD,  n.n.). Analysis of 233  indicators applied for evaluation of schools in Latvia shows that 69 (about 20%) of them are related to the  competencies that are specific to the  Master’s level education, other 80%  – to teachers’ professional competencies or their management skills. The  Figure 3 illustrates the  proportion of the  key areas (number of indicators) whose quality is 586 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 determined by the  professional competence at the  Master’s level and justifies the  conclusion that the  areas in which education the  Master’s competencies are most needed are process analysis, evidence-based institution development planning, as well as expertise and mastery in methodological leadership. Figure 3. Formal quality indicators related to Master studies The results of conducted semi structured interviews revealed that the  Master’s degree at school is not required neither by the  profession standard, nor it affects directly the  teacher’s financial conditions. The Master’s level education is not required by regulation or any external conditions. However, taking into account the  demands of modern education – moving towards competence approach and increasing an autonomy of the  schools, managing modern educational processes and implementing inclusive education  – the  Master’s level competencies for teachers and educators in general education have become crucial to ensure the evidence-based quality education, innovation and school development in the  changing contexts. There are clearly required such competences as: process planning, evaluation, forecasting; methodological leadership; ability to act / think / plan / analyse interdisciplinary; ability to analyse the  effectiveness of educational processes; evidence-based development planning (including ability to contextualize and use the  results of current research in the  field); ‘big picture’ thinking in education. The  key-term of the  Master’s level education should be internal discipline. Taking into account the direction of education policy to competencies based education, education institutions demand change agents understanding and learning the  essence of actual education changes as well as implementing them 587Dita  Nīmante, Maija Kokare. Teacher’s Motivation for Master Degree Program ... in real contexts (considering the  lack of educators, aging, technological possibilities, etc.), fostering internal discipline by working in teams, especially concerning inclusive education, which is actual for education policy in Latvia and requires effective collaboration of the  whole school personnel. Thus, despite the real (pragmatic considerations) situation in educational institutions to implement reform plans, educators have the opportunity to improve their academic and professional potential in the  Master’s level programs. It is also related to the  provision of pedagogical professional development opportunities, which, in parallel with the  broad offer of  further education courses and regulations for the  further education of teachers, provide an opportunity to significantly increase the qualification of educators, directs to higher academic / professional level activities and purposefully prepares specialists for work in uncertain situations that are topical for education reforms (can generate new ideas, evaluate their implementation risks, use methodologically sound reasoning, evaluating situations / results / opportunities). Results of the 2nd phase After the  conducted or provided analyses of formal quality indicators and semi structured interviews results, taking into consideration literature review, there was made a  set of 23 motivations for teachers to study in the Master’s level programs. The possibility to add teachers own motivation to the  list was provided. There were both intrinsic and extrinsic motives included in the list. Intrinsic motives: self-realization, to get broader picture an overview and an interdisciplinary view of what is going on in education, to develop pedagogical competencies, to develop leader competencies, to develop researcher competencies, to participate in the  planning and implementation of educational processes in an educational institution, evaluation, forecasting skills; to make evidence based analyses of processes at school, to undertake methodological leadership in the school, to become a  change leader in education, to spend purposefully the  free time, to implement the research projects of interest, to have an opportunity to learn in the  Master’s level program, to achieve the  high quality professional development in the area of interest, to acquire the Master’s level education for future studies in Doctoral program, to be ready to start up own business. The  extrinsic motives: to have a  higher salary, to keep job, to raise status in education institution, to climb the career ladder, to belong to educational institution, as the work in that institution demands a higher level education, to lead a projects, to became a director of the educational institution, to have an opportunity to go abroad for exchange programs. There were no any other motives added from participants to the list. 588 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Accordingly, the major question to teachers was about their motivation to study in the  Master’s program “Educational sciences”. The  survey revealed that the 8 highest ranking of respondents motivation for Master studies in education were: deliberately improve pedagogical competences (47,8%) to get broader picture an overview and an interdisciplinary view of what is going on in education (35,5%), to participate in the  planning and implementation of educational processes in school (22,6%), to improve management/leadership competencies (21,5%), to become the  leader for change in the education (15,1%), to achieve the high quality professional development in the area of interest (15,1%), to make an evidence based analyses of existing processes at school (15,1%), to develop researcher competence (15,1%). The all above mentioned motives are intrinsic ones. The 8 lowest ranking of respondent’s motivation for the Master’s studies in education were: to keep their own job (2,2%) and to have an opportunity to go abroad for exchange programs (2,7%), to raise their own status in the  education institution (3,2%), to spend purposefully the  free time (4,3%), to have a higher salary (5,9%), to climb the career ladder (5,9%), to lead projects (5,9%), to belong to educational institution, as the work in that institution demands the  higher level education (6,5%). Seven of the  8 lowest ranking motives were connected with extrinsic motivation. The  results obtained may be explained by the  respondents’ answer to the  next question: whether the  teachers were encouraged and motivated to study to the Master’s program by the educational institutions in which they work currently. In response to that 29,6% teachers agreed that they were encouraged and motivated to study in the Master’s level program, but 35,5% admitted that they were not motivated by the institution they work for. The  other question was asked to teachers: under which conditions teachers would be willing to study for a  Master’s degree? The  5  highest ranking answers were: if the  studies were interesting and attractive (51,6%), if there would be a possibility to study for the state budget funds (50,5%), if it would be possible to solve the existing work problem during the  studies (25,3%), if there would be a  part time studies (25,3%), if the studies would be on Fridays and Saturdays (24,7), if it would affect my salary (22%). The answers provided by teachers still highlight the fact that for intrinsic motives there is high importance, as respondents are willing to have interesting and attractive studies. Nevertheless, the possibility for students to study for the state funded is not less important. It can influence the teacher’s decision to study in the Master’s level program. 589Dita  Nīmante, Maija Kokare. Teacher’s Motivation for Master Degree Program ... Conclusions and Implications Recognizing the  limitations of this study, the case study indicates that the  motivation of teachers in Latvia to study the  Master’s level program is primarily intrinsic one which is consistent with international research (Nghia, 2018, Arar, et al., 2018, Kowalczuk-Walędziak, et al., 2017). Out of the 23 motivations for teachers to study in the Master’s level programs there were identified the 8 as most important ones: deliberately improve pedagogical competences, to get broader picture an overview and an interdisciplinary view of what is going on in education, to participate in the  planning and implementation of educational processes in school, to improve management/leadership competences, to become the  leader of change in the  education, to achieve the  high quality professional development in the  area of interest, to make an evidence based analyses of the current processes at school, to develop their researcher competence. The results of the survey pointed out that external motivation was the least important for teachers. To keep job, to have an opportunity to go abroad for exchange programs, to raise status in education institution where they are employed, to have a  higher salary, to climb the  career ladder was the  least important motivation for teachers to study in the  Master’s program. As it was explained by respondents of semi structured interviews the Master’s degree is not required neither by the profession standard, nor it affect in any way the teacher’s financial conditions. Only fourth part of the respondents agreed that they were encouraged and motivated to study Master’s program by the  educational institutions in which they work. If compare it with international studies (Nghia, 2018, Arar, et al., 2018) in other countries teachers have given greater importance to external motives than in Latvia. Consequently, we can conclude that the teacher’s extrinsic motivation to study the Master’s level program in the education is closely associated with existing political, socio-economic, cultural and educational characteristics of Latvia’s current state and demands from society. Although the intrinsic motivation is the most important for teachers to study the  Master’s level programs in Latvia the  designers and supporters of the program should be considering that half of the respondents agreed that the  studies should be interesting and attractive and there should be a possibility to study using the state budget funds for this purpose. Many teachers would be interested to solve the  existing work problem during the  studies. Almost fourth part of the  respondents would be interested in the part time studies and to have lessons on Fridays and Saturdays. Only the fifth part of the teachers admitted that they would be interested to study if the studies affect their salary. So we can conclude that the motivation of teachers to study in the Master’s level program is primarily intrinsic one but 590 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 opportunity to study using the  state budget resources would significantly increase respondents’ interest for studies. According to the  results the  Master’s program “Education Science” is developed by taking into consideration the  program objectives, by clarification the  concept of the  program, content and possible forms of studies. References Arar K., Zuzovsky R., Donitsa-Schmidt, S., Trumper R. & Barak, J. (2018). Teachers’ Motivations for Master’s Degree Programs in Education in Israeli Teacher Training Institutions and the  Implications for Government Policy-making Concerning those Programs. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education. Doi: https://datubazes.lanet.lv:487 6/10.1080/1359866X.2018.1542661. Bozek, B., Raeymaeckers, P., Spooren, P. (2017). Motivations to become a  master in social work: a  typology of students. European Journal of Social Work, Volume 20, Issue  3, Pages 409–421 Doi: https://datubazes.lanet.lv:4876/10.1080/13691457.201 7.1283587. Beresford-Dey, M., Holme, R. (2018). Optional Assessment Submission within Master’s- level Learning: Teachers’ Perceptions. Professional development in education, Volume 44, Issue 3, 428–443. Deci, E. L, Ryan, R. M. (1994). Promoting Self – determinated Education. Scandinavian Journal of Educational research. Volume 38, No  1, 3–14. Accessible: https://www. researchgate.net/publication/248960376_Promoting_Self-determined_Education. Kowalczuk-Walędziak, M., Clipa, O., Daniela, L. (2017). Do Teachers Really Need a  Master’s Degree? Student Teachers’ Perspectives// Journal of Educational Sciences 1(35), p. 38–58. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. Accessible: https://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf. Nghia, T., L. H. (2018). Vietnamese Students’ Learning Motivations for Master’s Programmes: Implications for Curriculum Development and Pedagogical Practice ORCID Icon. Journal of Further and Higher Education. Doi: https://datubazes.lanet.lv:4876/10.1 080/0309877X.2018.1444742. Snoek, M., Enthoven, M., Kessels, J., Volman, M. (2017). Increasing the  Impact of a  Master’s Programme on Teacher Leadership and School Development by Means of  Boundary Crossing. International Journal of Leadership in Education, Volume 20, Issue 1, 26–56. Doi: https://datubazes.lanet.lv:4876/10.1080/13603124.2015.1025855. SEQS/IKVD (n.n.). Metodiskie ieteikumi profesionālās izglītības un vispārējās izglītības iestāžu pašvērtēšana [Methodological recommendations for Self-assessment of vocational education and general education institutions] Retrieved from: http://viaa. gov.lv/library/files/original/06_IKVD_Metod_ieteik_pasvertesanai_upd.pdf. 591Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 PROFESSIONAL MASTERY OF ACADEMICS IN HIGHER EDUCATION: THE CASE OF LATVIA Dace Medne J. Vītols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Nora Jansone Ratinika Rīga Stradiņš University, Latvia ABSTRACT The whole higher education (HE) teaching and learning environment nowadays is formed by similar phenomena: greater, more ambitious and diverse student structure, high quality demands, rapidly changing technological opportunities, higher hopes from government, students and employers that the  graduates will be prepared for quickly changing workplaces. Changes and uncertainty in the  world are unceasing topics of discussion and research in any industry. Preparing students to live in today’s uncertain world is an important task for universities. In the context of a suitable study process development, at the  moment study programmes and study courses in HE institutions in Latvia are being reorganised, new demands are being defined for academic staff, extensive evaluation of study process and involved participants is being carried out, including one of the common practices in HE institutions – student surveys. The obtained results are being used not only in quality assurance for quality control but also to establish the  necessary improvements and continuous development of studies. Yet, more and more frequently employers state that graduates are not sufficiently prepared for the  changing and uncertain world and professional life. Why? As the  ‘world of work’ has also advanced, the  changes in HE institutions are not always being implemented according to the  dynamic demands of the industries. The implementation of changes brings about not only a shift in organisation of HE institution performance but also changes in perception and comprehension of students and academic staff. With the purpose of study process supervision, the opinion of students is identified more frequently than the  opinion of academic staff. Therefore, a question about how academic staff of HE institutions implement their professional activity that forms the  framework of their professional mastery, becomes topical, because the  professional mastery of HE academic staff is a prerequisite for the processes of development of student professional mastery. The  way how academic staff of HE institution see themselves as people, as lecturers, is an important aspect of how they implement their professional mastery (Ashwin et al., 2015). This demand formed the  research question: what creates the professional mastery framework of a HE lecturer who prepares students for a situation of uncertainty and changes. In order to answer the  research question, scientific literature was analysed, a binding framework and reasoned professional academic staff framework https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.43 Dace Medne, Nora Jansone Ratinika Professional Mastery of Academics ... 592 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 established, the explanations of criteria for professional mastery of the academic staff of HE in day-to-day professional activity were identified. Keywords. Higher Education, Professional Mastery, Professional Activity. Introduction The idea of sustainable development is the primary goal of 21st-century education. Education for sustainable development promotes people’s responsibility in everyday life: self-realising in line with the social, cultural, economic and natural environments. Therefore, the  aim of education for sustainable development is a person who lives not only in accordance with nature and other cultures but also is able to realise himself fully in the  economy and in society as a whole, ensuring the  long-term and thoughtful use of resources. Such a person understands local problems and can view them in a global context, understands other cultures with respect. Furthermore, this person is also capable of building healthy relationships of different levels (personal, professional), thus creating a sustainable society and promoting its economic growth. The Sustainable Development Strategy of Latvia until 2030 emphasizes that the quality of education, its availability and content are major challenges for the  development of human capital. Higher education is not only a process of acquiring specific competencies and qualifications but also a process of developing human talents, emotional intelligence and personality. The National Development Plan of Latvia for 2014–2020, therefore, identifies “Economic growth” as one of its priorities and “Developed research, innovation and higher education” as one of the actions to achieve it. In order to implement the National Development Plan of Latvia, professional HE institution lecturers, whose professional mastery is one of the  prerequisites for the  qualitative implementation of the study process and the development of a healthy study environment, are required. An equally important context of the problem to be analysed is that the whole HE teaching and learning environment nowadays is formed by similar phenomena: greater, more ambitious and diverse student structure, high quality demands, rapidly changing technological opportunities, higher hopes from government, students and employers that the  graduates will be prepared for quickly changing workplaces. Changes and uncertainty in the world are unceasing topics of discussion and research in any industry. Preparing students to live in today’s uncertain world is an important task for universities. Therefore, a question about how academic staff of HE institutions implement their professional activity that forms the framework of their professional mastery, becomes topical, because the  professional mastery of HE academic staff is a prerequisite for the  processes of 593Dace Medne, Nora Jansone Ratinika. Professional Mastery of Academics ... development of student professional mastery. The way how academic staff of HE institutions see themselves as people, as lecturers, is an important aspect of how they implement their professional mastery (Ashwin et al., 2015). Nowadays, the HE lecturer not only prepares the new specialists for the needs of the national economy, but also introduces them to further life- long learning and research activities. Therefore, the  content of the  social role of lecturers is changing. They become supporters, partners, inspirers and guides in the  selection and acquisition of knowledge, in the  learning process. Nowadays, the HE lecturers also keep learning, direct their own and students’ knowledge, act as entrepreneurs. Scientific knowledge is used in the  study process in the  development of teaching materials and tools; students engage in scientific research, thereby building and developing their research and professional competencies necessary for the sustainable development of society. The  context of HE reforms helps to identify the problem to be analysed in the study: the importance of the professional mastery of a lecturer in building healthy communication in the  study process. The  subject of the  research is the  analysis of the  professional mastery of lecturers in the provision of sustainable education. The described situation reveals the  research problem on which the research questions are based: 1) what criteria form the  framework of the  professional mastery of the academic staff? 2) how are the  components of the  framework of the  professional mastery of HE lecturers outlined in the lecturers’ interviews? The Context A professional is a person who has graduated from an accredited initial training program, including specialized knowledge in accordance with a professional standard, and who is approved as a registered practitioner with the  right to express an autonomous professional judgment (Hooley, 2007). Professional mastery is linked to the  concept of “a profession and a professional” (Munoz Palm, 2008). The  framework of professional mastery consists of (1) competence in the field of specialization, (2) moral integrity (values) and (3) didactic competence (Carr, 2000; Shon, 2006). This framework acts as a foundation for all professionals and is useful for achieving the  objectives of professional communities. This content of the  framework of professional mastery is therefore also relevant to the professional mastery of the HE lecturer. Law (the Law on Institutions of Higher Education of the  Republic of Latvia, LV § Section 27, 1995) states that the  academic staff of an institution of higher education shall conduct scientific research and participate in the  educating of students. 594 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Professional mastery also includes focusing on pedagogical work, becoming a competent professional in one’s field, respecting professional ethics, maintaining a healthy emotional climate in higher education institutions and the  professional identity of university lecturers (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2012). In the  context of professional mastery, Archer (2000) emphasizes the  importance of a sense of belonging; a sense of belonging is exercised through “internal conversation”, through an activity she calls “reflection” It can, therefore, be concluded that the  professional mastery framework of HE lecturers consists of the following dimensions: pedagogical (didactic), occupational (the sector in which the  lecturer is teaching) and research-related. Scientists agree that professional mastery is closely related to professional identity (Marcelo, 2009). Through professional identity, HE institution lecturers perceive themselves and form their own professional mastery on the basis of self-perception. Professional identity is the function of HE institution lecturers to define themselves and others (Marcelo, 2009). Continuous professional development is a necessary condition for the professional mastery of HE institution lecturers. Similarly, the available literature reaffirms the importance of professional identity in strengthening quality in the  education sector. The quality of higher education refers to effective teaching and learning resulting from suitable resources, including the professional mastery of university teachers (Okebuka, Shabani, 2007). Through the  analysis of the  scientific literature, it can be concluded that there is no common view on what constitutes the professional framework of a HE institution lecturer, therefore, an empirical study was carried out in order to identify the components of professional mastery of a HE institution lecturer in the context of Latvia. Methodology and Process The study was carried out in a qualitative approach, using the content analysis of interviews with 20 lecturers from different Latvian higher education institutions, which allows to analytically and descriptively compare the  thematic diversity expressed in the  narratives of interviews with the  views identified in pedagogical literature and other secondary sources. For linguistic analysis of the  narrative content of HE institution lecturers, primary content association-raising basic factors – the personality characteristics of HE institution lecturers – were selected. In the secondary selection, the names of the respective actors and their activities with identical and close meaning were identified – forms of a word in various tenses or conjugations, singular and plural forms, diminutives, which characterize the  social roles and functions of the  basic actors. The  social roles and functions of the  basic actors were analysed according to the  dimensions 595Dace Medne, Nora Jansone Ratinika. Professional Mastery of Academics ... identified in the theoretical findings: pedagogical, occupational (the sector in which the lecturer is teaching) and research-related. According to the amount of data to be processed, the linguistic analysis of HE institution lecturer interviews was carried out during the first level of empirical analysis using the  QSR NVivo 12 Quality data processing programme; the identified content units were analysed manually. The choice of a computer program was determined by functional advantages: (1) it offers to automate the  analysis of the  original primary data array and manually adjust it to the content at later levels of analysis. It makes it easy to collect and systematize qualitative data; to identify frequently used words, the context of their use and meanings by carrying out simple concessional analysis; (2) it provides an opportunity to automatically filter large-scale data accurately in a short time across different cross-sections and contexts, thereby significantly accelerating their analysis and increasing the  level of its objectivity. (3) A computer program consecutively retains historical commands, allowing the  researcher to manage the  course of coding and analysis in a meaningful way (Bryman, 2016; Bazeley, Jackson, 2013). Data processing and analysis were implemented on several levels: (1) the  content units of interviews were imported into the  NVivo file, technically edited and sequentially coded, with the frequency initially set at 3,000-words; then, based on their weighted rate of frequency, 184 identified and selected, and of those, 15 basic keywords (codes) which characterise the  professional mastery of a HE institution lecturer; (2) hierarchical coding-grouping was implemented to identify mutually thematically related keywords and groups, their frequency of use and contextual meanings, that reveal the  essence of the  research focus “the professional mastery of a HE institution lecturer”; (3) based on the  code structure created through content analysis, the  framework of the professional mastery of a HE institution lecturer was created, designed for planning, promoting and supporting personal, professional and career development goals in higher education. Results Gender distribution of respondents: female (n = 15) and male (n = 5), their age varies from 30 to 56 years. The most frequently used words in the  interviews are shown in Table 3.1; they were analysed by frequency, namely, numerical values: the  frequency of each code (number showing how often it is referred to in the  text) and the  weighted percentage of the  word indicating the  frequency of the  code in the  total text volume. The interview codes used in the interviews were analysed interrelatedly by using content analysis and context analysis. 596 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Table 1. The Most Frequently Identified Words in Interviews Word Count Weighted Percentage (%) self-reflection 40 14.63 healthy self-esteem 37 13.17 health and safety 35 12.12 perseverance 30 11.63 learning skills 30 11.63 discussions 27 11.36 responsibility 25 11.08 enthusiasm 24 8.66 humour 24 8.66 assessment skills 19 8.38 equality 18 8.24 information literacy 17 7.96 ability to regulate emotions 16 7.78 motives for choosing a profession 15 7.77 attitudes towards innovation 15 7.77 prioritization 28 7.59 analysis 28 7.59 creativity 28 7.59 to feel in harmony 27 7.58 belief in oneself 25 7.00 to feel interested 23 6.91 return 19 6.86 time management 19 6.86 satisfaction 18 6.57 respect 17 6.47 reaction to change 16 5.78 knowledge 16 5.78 positive self-image 15 5.65 continuous professional development 14 5.42 self-organization 14 5.42 preparation 14 5.42 work-life balance 14 5.42 resources 12 4.26 critical thinking 11 3.97 infrastructure 9 3.83 cooperation 10 3.61 problem-solving skills 10 3.61 language skills 10 3.61 597Dace Medne, Nora Jansone Ratinika. Professional Mastery of Academics ... Through analysis of the results obtained (Table 1), it can be concluded that the most frequently used words in the interviews of the HE institution lecturers reflect that, in the  content of their professional mastery, personality traits of the lecturers, as well as functions (activities) and skills are included. The  most commonly used words illustrate the  professional mastery of HE institution lecturers as a self-reflective, dynamic and goal- oriented part of their personalities. In order to determine the framework of professional mastery of university lecturers, in the  program actions were taken to identify the most frequent interrelations between commonly used words, and a scheme was created that reflects their interconnectedness in thematic blocks (their order based on subordination). Data analysis points to three blocks of word interrelation: personal efficiency, knowledge, and emotional satisfaction, where the order of words indicates the complexity of the relationship between them. For the sake of visualisation, the programme scheme has been manually narrowed to three interrelation blocks (Table 2). Table 2. Breakdown of the Most Frequent Interrelations Between Words. Personal Effectiveness Word Association Sub-block personal effectiveness prioritization return humour preparation perseverance time management enthusiasm motives for choosing a profession reaction to change work-life balance self-organization self-reflection responsibility belief in oneself positive self-image problem-solving skills respect ability to regulate emotions healthy self-esteem The first word interrelation block is based on the  word personal effectiveness (Table 3), which is composed of three sub-blocks: return, work-life balance and positive self-image. The  word return is related to the  words: motives for choosing a profession, enthusiasm, prioritization, 598 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 humour, preparation, perseverance and time management skill. The  combination of words work-life balance is related to words: reaction to change, self-organization, self-reflection and responsibility. The  words ability to regulate emotions, belief in oneself, problem-solving skills, respect and healthy self-esteem are associated with the word combination positive self-image. Table 3. Breakdown of the Most Frequent Interrelations Between Words. Knowledge Word Association Sub-block knowledge analysis language skills learning skills critical thinking problem-solving skills information literacy creativity attitude to innovation assessment skills The word block of words is composed of the word knowledge (Table 4), which consists of two sub-blocks: language skills and information literacy. Composition of the words language skills is related to the words: analysis, earning skills, critical thinking. Composition of the  words information literacy involves words: problem-solving skills, creativity, attitude to innovation and assessment skills. Table 4. Breakdown of the Most Frequent Interrelations Between Words. Emotional Satisfaction Word Association Sub-block satisfaction resources infrastructure health and safety responsibility continuous professional development cooperation discussions respect to feel interested to feel in harmony equality ability to regulate emotions 599Dace Medne, Nora Jansone Ratinika. Professional Mastery of Academics ... The third word block consists of the word satisfaction (Table 4), which consists of two sub-blocks: infrastructure and cooperation. The  word infrastructure is associated with the  words: resources, health and safety, responsibility. Word cooperation is related to words: continuous professional development, discussions, respect, to feel interested, to feel in harmony, equality and ability to regulate emotions. Discussion When analysing the  results of the  study, the  research questions of the  study can be answered: all the dimensions of professional mastery of the higher education institution lecturers identified in theories are outlined in the  interview content topics. The  results suggest that HE institution lecturers do not implement their professional mastery based on the model they have witnessed, observed and acknowledged as appropriate, but consciously develop their professional mastery as part of their personality. It can be concluded that the  most frequently used words in HE lecturer interviews reflect the  framework of professional mastery, and it consists of personality traits as well as functions (activities) and skills. Thus, a framework of professional craftsmanship can be created with facets of personal efficiency, knowledge and satisfaction. Satisfaction encompasses both infrastructure and cooperation aspects, so it can be concluded that this block is at the  core of the  learning process shift, from the  subject’s position, into an open communicative space: the  circulation of ideas, approbation and joint evaluation. Knowledge is related to the  lecturer’s skills to acquire the necessary information of varied content and nature, to navigate through it and to use the information in such a way that the added value of knowledge is created. The obtained results confirm nowadays that acquisition of new knowledge is closely related to information management, promoting the  necessity of lifelong learning. The  self-efficiency block, on the  other hand, includes how the  HE institution lecturers perceive themselves, feel and behave, what attitudes towards the new they develop. The  self-efficiency block includes indicators that characterize personality traits and skills to manage different situations. It can be concluded that the  idea of learning through teaching is the  basis of the  professional mastery framework of the lecturers. This study can be considered as a pilot study for further research, as the  study had a number of limitations: a small number of respondents and interviews were conducted only in the  HE institutions located in the  capital. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the  professional mastery of HE institution lecturers, the  study could be continued by exploring the  in-depth content of each facet as well as by continuing to 600 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 increase their number. Therefore, in assessing further aspects of the  HE institution lecturer’s professional mastery discourse study, they could be subject to the  conclusion of historian Victoria Harris, that, in the  future, succession should be enriched, not by studying discourses, because they reveal categories, and the categories are flowing and relative, but through focusing research on specific experiences (Harris, 2010). References Ashwin, P., Boud, D., Coate, K., Hallett, F., Keane, E., Krause, K. L., Leibowitz, B., MacLaren,  I., McArthur, J., McCune,  V., Tooher, M. (2015). Reflective Teaching in Higher Education.UK: Bloomsbury Academic. Law on Institutions of Higher Education of the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republikas Augstskolu likums). Retrieved from https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=37967. Bazeley, P., Jackson, K. (2013). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo. London: SAGE Publications. Bohley P. (2016). Identität. Wie sie entsteht und warum der Mensch sie braucht [How it originates and why man needs it]. Marburg: Tectum Verlag. Bryman, A. (2016). Social Research Methods. UK: Oxford University Press. Carr D. (2000). Professionalism and Ethics in Teaching. London and New York: Routledge. Commonwealth Secretariat (2012). The  role and future of the  commonwealth. Re- trieved from https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmfaff/writev/ common wealth/com17.htm. Harris, V. (2010). Sex on the margins: new directions in the historiography of sexuality and gender. The Historical Journal, 53 (4). 1085–1104. Hooley, N. (2007). Establishing Professional Identity: Narrative as Curriculum for Pre- Service Teacher Education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 32(1). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2007v32n1.4. The National Development Plan of Latvia for 2014–2020 (Latvijas Republikas Latvijas Nacionālais attīstības plāns 2014.–2020. gadam). Retrieved from https://likumi.lv/doc. php?id=253919. Marcelo, C. (2009) Professional Development of Teachers: past and future. Sisifo. Educational Sciences Journal, 8, 5–20. Munoz Palm, R. C. (2008). Professional Identify of the  Occupational Therapist. TOG (A  Coruna) (Internet Journal), 5(2), 110–125. Retrieved from http://www.revistatog. com/ mono/num2/palm_ing.pdf. Okebukola, P., Shabani, J. (2007). Quality assurance and accreditation in higher education in Sub-Sarahan Africa. In Tres, J., Sanyal, B. C. (Eds.), Higher Education in the World 2007: Accreditation for Quality Assurance: What is at Stake?, 188–200. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Shon Ch.K. (2006). Teacher Professionalism. Faculty Publications and Presentations. 46. Retrieved from http:// digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053& context=educ_fac_pubs. 601Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE FEATURES AND TYPES OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF TEACHERS Beatrix Fűzi Budapest Business School University of Applied Sciences, Hungary Erzsébet Jármai Budapest Business School University of Applied Sciences, Hungary ABSTRACT Higher education is struggling with the consequences of “mass production” that has become characteristic in recent decades. The  challenges include large group sizes, impersonal teacher-student relationships, an increase in the number of students with specific learning difficulties. Our research and development project (EFOP-3.6.1-16-2016-00012) aims to help teachers in economics programmes in the formation of attitudes supportive of students and in the development of the efficiency of teaching. We intended to explore teachers’ perceptions of the  students, with special attention to their motivation and the characteristics of the learning. We were curious whether teachers identify various student types, and if they take into consideration them in their teaching activities. (We asked students to provide self-characterisations along the above mentioned factors in order to make a comparison between the teachers’ and the students’ perspectives possible.) We surveyed teachers of six Hungarian universities. The  questionnaire was completed by 210 university teachers. We also supplemented the  above with the  qualitative analysis of 42 in-depth interviews conducted with teachers. Almost all teachers agreed that there is a  perceptible increase in the  differences between students. The  teachers’ responses outlined a  few student types, as well as some typical attitudes in reaction. While the  majority of the  teachers approach the  experienced phenomena as a  challenge, or at least as a  task to tackle, and are therefore actively looking for solutions, a  smaller proportion considered them as unsolvable problems, and therefore do not even experiment with solutions. The interviews with the  teachers shed light on the  significant differences in terms of how nuanced the  teachers’ images of students are. We incorporate our findings into trainings for teachers. Keywords: university students, university teachers, motivation, learning, student characteristics, higher education of economics. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.44 Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai The Features and Types of University Students’ ... 602 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Introduction The stakeholders of Hungarian higher education are dissatisfied. One of the  consequences of the  series of reforms over the  past three decades is “mass production,” as a  result of which the composition of the student population has changed significantly: it has become more diversified, and differences between students increased. Prestigious and famous universities pick out the best, highly motivated students. Younger universities, most of which were originally colleges, enrol a  large number of less motivated students with average academic performance in order to obtain or keep state financing. As a result, teachers at universities encounter lower levels of preparation and motivation on the  part of the  students, while in connection with themselves they feel that they are not adequately prepared to handle the diversity and the large number of students. When we ask students, however, it turns out that, from their point of view, the  low motivation is, to a  large extent, the  consequence of the teachers’ attitudes and obsolete teaching methods. (Fűzi, 2019) As such, the  two sides are blaming each other. The  problem is well manifested by the  fact that, in addition to the  large drop-out rate, the enthusiasm of students remaining in the programmes also significantly decreases over time (Solt, 2018). Our university is currently striving to address this phenomenon in two ways. On the one hand, it offers special remedial courses and other forms of support to students. On the  other hand, it is engaged in a  wide-scale research project among teachers and students on the topics of motivation, the use of ICT tools, as well as the application and experiencing of teaching methods, the results of which are channelled into teacher training courses and publications on teaching methodology. Our paper presents a segment of this research project. Approach and background Results related to Hungarian higher education Briefly, we wish to mention the Hungarian problems concerning higher education, which also occur in other institutions of the  European Higher Education Area. The accelerated technical, economic, social and value changes that started in the 20th century did not leave higher education untouched either. In connection with the enrolment expansion, Hrubos (2014, 541) underlines that the massified higher education is not sustainable in the manner used 603Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... before this expansion process started. Although the problems are sensed by all stakeholders and there are also efforts for finding solutions, responding to the challenges occurs slower than would be necessary. Derényi (2018, 133) points out that teachers are faced, on the  one hand, with changes in the students, and on the other hand, they experience that their traditional methods are no longer sufficient in teaching students. The  composition of the  student population also transformed significantly in recent years. The number of students applying and admitted to higher education in the  year of their graduation from secondary school has increased (see Figure 1). Due to the  decrease of willingness to apply later and of the  proportion of those involved in part-time programmes, the  average age of freshmen is younger than before. The  most talented students try to get into universities in the capital and in other big cities, as well as abroad. Figure 1. Teachers’ perception of the decrease in admitted students’ prior knowledge (2014). Source: Derényi, 2018, 142 Based on the data of outstanding project named TÁMOP-4.1.3. By taking the matriculation examinations, everyone earns the  right to enter higher education, which is thus available not only to students in elite education programmes (Kocsis and Koltai 2006, 190, qtd. by Simándi 2016, 18). The  student population can be considered as heterogeneous from different points of view: not only in terms of their age, but also their level of prior studies, for example, it is not infrequent to have students working towards their second or third degrees. An increasing number of students also have jobs, which means different work-related experiences on which teachers can build, but there will be also students in the same group who never had a  job anywhere before. The  so-called non-traditional students also include those who are older, have families, live with disabilities, or 604 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 have special education needs (SEN), and teachers are not professionally prepared for these students at all (Kopp, 2013, qtd. by Simándi, 2016, 18). It is not surprising that, in addition to the increasing number of students, the heterogeneity of the groups also makes teachers’ work more difficult, as it would necessitate methodological adaptivity and differentiation. Another factor contributing to the  diversity of students is that in the  course of their admission procedures  – with the  exception of a  few programmes where aptitude tests have been introduced  – there is no screening of students (Derényi, 2018, 134). Balázs (2014, 551) considers it a  legitimate criticism against higher education institutions that, because of the “per capita quota,” they admit anyone, which leads to a  significant decrease of the  quality standards. Students not suited to higher education hinder the  learning progress of talented and committed students. They put additional burdens on the  teachers, which distracts them from academic and research activities. In his opinion, it cannot be expected from universities to help students who are lagging behind from secondary schools by offering remedial courses. In recent years, some isolated initiatives, educational innovations have been started, associated with individual subjects, courses, or specific teachers. Some universities strive to offer trainings and other forms of support developing education for its teachers (Derényi, 2018, 139). Teachers in higher education would be more willing to make efforts for better quality education if they experienced a minimal level of motivation from students for learning. In the  different institutions, especially driven by the individual efforts of leaders and teachers, some very promising and interesting innovation processes are being realized, but their maintenance and the dissemination of their effect is unsolved and lacking in resources (Derényi, 2018, 145). Local and international research concerning changes in higher education and students Given the  large number of international research projects concerning the  characteristics and motivations of the  current generation of students, the  effects of the  use of electronic devices, or the  methodological development of higher education, we can assume that the  phenomenon examined is not a  local one. In the  following, we will briefly refer to some of these projects that provided ideas for us when designing our own research. Khalid (2013) conducted interviews with teachers considered by students as excellent and recognized for their work with awards. He tried to identify which classroom activities and teaching styles raise interest among university students. The  use of teaching methodological elements 605Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... considered effective by the  interviewees was also justified by student characteristics and needs. It transpired from the  responses that what the  majority of students need is not solution of tasks modelling reality, but real tasks, active participation in the processing of the course material, as well as regular and substantive feedback. Further, they are seeking for opportunities for the practical application of the course material. In her research, Lubicz-Nawrocka (2019) examined the  characteristics of what students perceived as excellent teaching. On the  basis of her results, it can be concluded that students attribute a key role to teachers in education of outstanding quality. They sense and appreciate teachers’ efforts and enthusiasm, as well as their support given to students. The studies of Vermunt and Minnaert (2003, qtd. by Kálmán) show that the learning style and characteristics of students change a lot over the course of their university years. Further, Vermunt (1996) proved that context also affects the  learning behaviour. He found that persons already possessing work experiences, who generally applied the  deep-processing learning strategy, start to apply the reproduction-directed strategy once again when they return to formal education settings. It follows from the  above that it is difficult to provide a  generally valid characterization of students. Therefore, it is advisable to ask teachers to give characterizations of their specific groups in order to find out whether they sense the  differences between the different groups and years of students. On the other hand, it is difficult to separate which characteristics are the students’ own and which are the elements activated by the environment. Fábri (2014) examined students preparing to start their studies in higher education and collected their expectations and needs, which are the following: • the up-to-date nature and applicability of the materials taught; • the helpfulness of the teachers; • the quality of the  theoretical education and the  high standard of the teaching (page 162); • the relationship between students and teachers in general; • possibilities for professional scholarships, talent management (page 233). Magyari (2010) is of the  opinion that the  negative experiences of teachers regarding students, such as the belief that they are unmotivated, mainly arise from the  loosening of parental and teachers’ control, from the university student lifestyle. In 2008, the National Union of Students prepared a survey among students at British universities concerning their experiences of life at universities (NUS Student Experience Report, 2008). A  total of 3,135  students from 146 higher education institutions participated in the survey. Different types 606 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 of students were identified on the basis of the factors motivating them to attend university (Figure 2). Figure 2. Motivation profiles – Motivations for attending university. Source: NUS Student Experience Report (2008, 6) On the  basis of our earlier research, we have found a  significant link between teachers’ effectiveness and their attitudes toward students, both in the  secondary school and the  higher education sample. Teachers’ perceptions of students influence both their acceptance among students and the effectiveness of their work. Research into how students and those working in higher education perceive each other and themselves as groups is missing and would be necessary. Research design and methodology We present one part of our research project its centre the questions and hypotheses stand mentioned below which were studied by mixed method. The questions raised • What features and types of students can be identified by university teachers? • What do teacher think of the origin of the changes? Do they assume connection between changes and ICT tools? • Do teachers have ideas, strategies to handle the students differently and to solve the noticed problems connected to the students? • What are the „good practices” for make the different student types more motivated? • Are there differences in the  teachers’ student image according to the gender, the years of teaching experience, have a teacher degree or not? 607Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... Hypothesis • Majority of teachers thinks the  tendency of the  changes of the students are negative. • Majority of teachers blame at least partly the enhanced usage of ICT tools for the changes of the students. • Women, teachers with more experience and certificated teachers mention more positive elements connecting to students. Data collection and tools We developed and used questionnaires for university teachers, also conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews with a  smaller group of them. Survey with questionnaire The use of the questionnaires was reasoned by the need to collect data from the largest possible number of teachers covering a diversity of areas. Questionnaires for teachers was improved in such a way that the questions pertaining to the motivational and learning characteristics of students and to the methods used in higher education would be included. The  teacher questionnaires were completed online. The  data collected were primarily subjected to a quantitative analysis by using SPSS. Interviews We also did semi-structured in-depth interviews with some of the teachers, in order to be able to make in-depth analyses and to further nuance the quantitative results. The interviews were conducted on the basis of a prepared outline, allowing the subjects also to go more into depth in certain topics, depending on their reactions and needs. The  transcripts of the  interviews were primarily analysed using a  procedure of qualitative textual analysis. The sampling method and the features of the sample Starting out from our own institutional profile, the  scope of our research project covered teachers and students in economic higher education, because we specifically aimed to provide assistance to them with the  findings. The  data was collected among teachers in the  related programmes of six Hungarian universities. The  sampling took place with a  combination of the  convenience and the  snowball sampling methods. We contacted the  teachers, through a  network of acquaintances and on the  basis of lists of addresses collected from the  websites of economic higher education institutions, either in person or by way of electronic mail specifically addressed to them. 608 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The teachers’ questionnaire was completed by 210 (57% female and 43% male) university teachers. In addition, we also conducted interviews with 42 teachers (44% female and 56 % male). The sample of respondents was representative for their respective institutions, although not nationally. The characteristics of the teachers participating in the survey: The average age of the respondent teachers was 48.5 years (the youngest was 26 and the  oldest respondent was 77 years old), the  average length of their experience in higher education was 18.7 years (between 1 and 54 years). 51% of the respondents were certified as teachers, 2% were in the process of pursuing such studies, and 47% had no teacher certification. Features of the teachers who gave answer to the interviews: The average length of teaching experience of the  interviewees was 17.6 years. 50% of them were certified as teachers, and one person was in the  process of pursuing such studies. The  interviewees represent the  general sample of respondents by questionnaires well. 47% of them have experience teaching in secondary education as well. Findings On the  basis of questionnaires, nearly half of the  teachers consider the changes experienced in connection with the students over the past few years and decades as definitely negative (see Figure 3). Less than one-fifth of all respondents have the  opinion that the  changes in connection with the students are definitely positive. A little over one-third of teachers who answered, have a balanced, more nuanced opinion on the students. Figure 3. What kind of changes did the teachers sense connedted the students based on the questionnaires (210 teacher respondants). Source: Own adjustment  based on the collected data 609Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... In the  present paper, we intend to provide a  deeper, more refined analysis of the views and opinions of teachers on students, on the basis of interviews conducted. The interview included a  question specifically pertaining to students (“Are today’s students different than those before? Please provide your reasons for your answer.”), but elements related to students were also formulated at several other points in the  interviews. In the  texts, we identified 123 elements pertaining to students, which we then systematized on the basis of various criteria. The first criterion was whether the element was a positive, negative or objective statement as regards students, or perhaps one in which positive and negative evaluations are mixed. Based on the  texts of the  interviews the majority of the statements were negative. Less than 10% were positive evaluations of students, while a third of them were objective or containing elements of mixed evaluations. From the  point of view of content, we differentiated between three groups: elements serving the  purpose of describing and characterising students (mentioned 89 times); elements related to the relationship between teachers and students (mentioned 15 times); and finally, elements in which teachers also formulated some kind of methodological recommendations and/or proposed solutions to handle the student characteristics sensed by them (mentioned 22 times). (Some elements could be placed in several categories.) Descriptions of the students In the descriptions of students, negative elements dominated once again (74%). There were also general, simplifying statements, such as “the quality of the students is continuously deteriorating,” and in some (a total of four) cases, the  interviewee responded to the  question with a  single adjective. More than 90% of the teachers, however, explicated their comments related to students at more length, with an average of three specific characteristics mentioned. The  most frequently mentioned negative characteristics were the following: • the decrease of interest, motivation, the lack of commitment; • the lack of willingness to invest energy and time, which is manifested in missing classes, striving to fulfil only the bare minimum level of requirements, low level of activity, doing something else in class, avoiding activities requiring persistence and concentration; • lack of independence, responsible behaviour and/or purposefulness; • gaps in necessary academic grounding, general education, or vocab- ulary, resulting in difficulties in making associations, incorporating 610 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 new elements; due to superficial knowledge, they are easy to influence; • underdeveloped skills in the  fields of communication, conflict management and teamwork; • missing desire to conform. A general teaching methodological consequence of the  above is the  difficulty of creating and maintaining discipline and attention. In comparison with our prior expectations, generational theories were offered only in few cases as an explanation. The source of teachers’ disappointment related to students is the non- fulfilment of their expectations based on earlier experiences. Few respondents identified positive elements concerning the  students in difference from their expectations. What could be in the background of this is that few teachers discover new virtues of students, or maybe because they do not have many such virtues related to their academic activities. Only 6% of the  abovementioned student characteristics were positive, which are listed below: • Generation Z is more curious; • they are more open; • students are more self-assertive, they know what they want to do for work, and prepare for it consciously; • their knowledge is different, but we can clearly see the many smart kids and how many things they can solve with their phone, for example; • in the  last two years, students have become more ambitious, they are not as lethargic as a few years ago; • they appreciate notes on the whiteboard, because otherwise they are just looking at their phones; • they are better at verbal activities and in presentations. 20% of the  descriptions of students were objective or included both positive and negative elements. The following are some examples: • “There are many guileful and soft-soaping students, but then I realized that the well-mannered kids are also there, and they suffer from the former group as well”; • “the majority are busy with some job, and they don’t really work while studying, but rather study while working”; • “they have more specific expectations when it comes to the lessons and the course material”; • “the changes in attitudes are rather negative, but as I know this age group, the students of the university belong to the elite”; • “they are pulling in the direction of the corporate world”; 611Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... • “students no longer know what they still knew five years ago, but they are also familiar with technologies that I have no clue about.” In response to the  question inquiring about changes in students, there were 15 references to the use of electronic devices as a  factor with a strongly influence on student characteristics. Three of these pertained to students confusing knowledge with information that is readily available on the internet. “Just because he pulls up a verb conjugation table on his phone, he won’t be able to use in real situations when speaking, this must be learnt.” “The use of gadgets appears to be some sort of knowledge, but it cannot substitute for knowledge of a subject.” “They think that they can learn everything from the internet and from Facebook.” • According to some teachers, students are practically addicted to their devices (mentioned five times). This was suggested by phrasings such as “they are glued to their gadgets” and “continuous online presence.” • Some respondents drew a  link between weakening literacy and the increased use of electronic devices. “They cannot write by hand, and I cannot read their writing, and for this reason I am not willing to give them a paper and pen test, only an electronic one.” • Some respondents firmly believed that the  reasons for the  changes in the students are not to be found in the digital age. “It is harder not because they are the digital Generation X or Y, but because of the lack of examples that would offer them values.” • Some colleagues prepare for the  changes between generations of students consciously and with joy. “I am already preparing for Gen  Z  students arriving soon; probably they will need a  different approach in teaching.” Changes in the teacher-student relationships When thinking about the  student characteristics, teachers mentioned 15 elements that allow us to draw some conclusions concerning the changes in teacher-student relationships. Among these, teachers reported on negative changes in 7 and on positive ones in 2 cases, while in 6 cases, we received answers containing objective, or both positive and negative elements. The negative elements were related to students no longer considering their teachers as unquestionable authorities. These includes statements such as “earlier, teachers had authority, but today, students respect teachers less,” “they are a bit more disrespectful”, “they do not believe that the  teachers would say something wise.” “What they do not understand is that we provide them with a  foundation, and we cannot teach them 612 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 everything specific to a given field, it is not possible.” “Maybe they even look down on us (teachers) because we do not have the latest gadgets.” Lubicz-Nawrocka (2019) has different results which mean that there is a  key role of teachers in the  students’ idea of the  excellent education. The  teachers’ efforts, helpfulness, trials to involve students and the direct behaviour of teachers are appreciated by students. Elements were considered as positive when teachers reported that the more direct teacher-student relationship gave them a good feeling, or when teachers found it a  positive experience when they could regularly learn something from their students. Elements related to teaching methodology From the  point of view of reducing drop-out rates, it is important to see whether teachers can respond to the  changing student characteristics effectively by way of their teaching methods and practices. In their characterizations of students, teachers formulated methodological conclusions in 22 cases. These showed both overlaps and contradictions. There is a need for the reinterpretation of the teacher’s role: the teacher should become more of a mentor, a person facilitating the synthesizing of knowledge. An investment of quality time is needed when the  students and the teachers can immerse in the material together. These findings are same to the results of Lubicz-Nawrocka (2019). Achieving a mass change in the current generation of students is not possible, and therefore, teachers need to find a way to adapt. By contrast, there was also a respondent who concluded that “it is not me who needs to change.” Many of the teachers welcomed teacher-student relationships becoming more direct, and considered it as a factor improving efficiency. The introduction of new methods of testing and examination, such as online examinations, points earned continuously during the  year on the one hand due to the deteriorating writing skills, and on the other hand because of digital competences becoming stronger. Respondents referred to students’ need for content-focused, substantial and positive feedback as an important need and one that needs to be satisfied. Some of the  respondents considered the  simplification of the  course material, the modification of its language (“translating it into the language of the students”), as well as the reduction of its quantity as possible ways to make progress. In the opinion of other teachers, however, simplification and reduction are not the  right direction; the  key is to select the  right forms and channels through which the  course material is conveyed to the students. 613Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... Many respondents consider abandoning the traditional genre of frontal, lecture-type instruction and/or its replacement with digital methods as the  desirable way. In the  opinion of others, the  ICT competences of students cannot be utilized in learning, because “when I wanted to use it for educational purposes, they were shocked,” and “they could not decide what is relevant and what is not.” Differences among teacher groups We made Khi-square calculations to answer our question whether there are differences among teacher groups according to the  to the  gender, to the years of teaching experience, to existence or absence of teacher degree. Because of the low number of the participants of the interviews we found interesting frequences but none of them were significant. Between the  male and female teachers were not find differences not even on the  level of frequences (see Figure 4). Both group mentioned positive, negative and balanced elements almost in the same amount. Figure 4. Positive, negative and balanced elements mentioned by male and female teachers about students. Source: Own adjustment based on the interviews’ data Inspite of the  similarities there was one interesting difference. The improving and changing the university teacher role in the direction of accept the student was suggested only by female teachers. Based on the proportions the beginners sensed more positive features of the students than the more experienced teachers (see Figure 5). 614 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Figure 5. Students’ features from the viewpoint of teachers with different experience. Source: Own adjustment based on the interviews’ data The most interesting difference was found between the  teachers who are certificated as a  teacher and who are not. The  certificated teachers mentioned less positive and less negative features of the students but said markedly more balanced elements than the  other group of teachers (see Figure 6). Figure 6. Evaluation of the students’ change by certificated and not certificated teachers. Source: Own adjustment based on the interviews’ data The lecturers without teacher degree sensed the changes of the students extreme. The hypotheses could not reinforced. 615Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... Student profiles based on teachers’ opinion In some of the  interviews, the  respondents described student types, characters in a detailed and nuanced way. In the following, we will present some of these. The positive student character is motivated and purposeful. One subtype is the  typical eminent student, who never questions the  content of the  course material, does not inquire about purposes, and strives to perform at maximum level. Another subtype consists of students who prepare their professional careers consciously, and are looking for elements in the  course materials that are useful and directly applicable. They are critical, but aiming to cooperate and develop. More different negative student characters appeared. Students struggling with difficulties: Students with learning difficulties, special needs, specific learning disabilities. The  fulfilment of the  requirements poses great difficulties for them. In many cases, their fellow students are also rejecting towards them, because they feel that such students slow down or disturb the process of education. Teachers, on the other hand, are often perplexed about how to prepare or support them. Life artists: Their university life is organized around good company and partying. For them, the  primary benefit of their university studies is not learning but networking. The  length of their study is often significantly longer than the original length of the programme. The scoundrel: A  contradictory student category in that they want to graduate, but also want to achieve this in the most energy-efficient way. Cheating, colluding, plagiarizing or other forms of academic dishonesty are not beyond them either, as they try to achieve their aim. The aimless: An entirely aimless group of students who only study because their parents want them to. It was not their own decision or interest that motivated their choice of studies. They just want to survive the  academic programme: they are not looking for any value in it, and often would not even recognize it even if it was right in front of them. A balanced view of students. It was named „Working beside learning or learning beside working”. An increasingly large number of students also have jobs, either because they need the  money to maintain themselves, or as a  conscious career building act. They are typically motivated and talented students; however, in the interest of achieving the right balance between work and studying, they strive for a  tight, efficient time schedule. They devote as much time to studying as necessary for fulfilling the requirements, and consequently, their results are often behind what could be expected on the basis of their capabilities. 616 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Teachers’ attitudes to new student characteristics We also examined what the text of the interviews reveals about teachers’ attitudes to students and their characteristics. In case of the majority of the interviewees it could be felt that they are looking for solutions and have various attempts for handling the changes. The  following summarizes the  most frequently received answers to the questions aimed at collecting the best practices. 1. Increasing classroom activities and involving students. 2. Taking student characteristics into consideration when designing the course materials. 3. Putting practical considerations, a  practice-oriented approach and applicability of the materials into the foreground. 4. Using ICT tools. 5. Strengthening the partnership nature of the teacher-student relationship. In addition, the  outlines of a  different attitude are also taking shape, representatives of which would prefer to turn back the  hands of time. The  main elements of this attitude include that universities should be reserved for the best students only, problematic students should be removed, and we should return to the application of teacher-centred methods. Discussion Our results indicate that teachers consider the  changes in connection with their students mainly as negative. On the  one hand, they assume a devaluation of their own role in the eyes of their students. On the other hand, they experience the facilitation of students’ learning as a significantly more difficult challenge. Their perceived situation in which they have to exert increased effort while weakened in their roles may, in the  longer run, also decrease their motivations as teachers. These factors – teachers’ perception of their role and their image of students – may be suitable for the screening of teachers at risk of being exhausted or burnt out. Our earlier research indicated positive attitudes toward students correlate with the  effectiveness of teachers (Fűzi and Suplicz, 2016). The  question arises whether teachers can maintain positive attitudes  – and if so, how  – if they consider students’ characteristics as negative as the findings above seem to indicate. In future research, we plan to examine whether teachers did not discover or mention the positive characteristics of today’s students: • because the  interview was a  good opportunity for venting com- plaints, or • because these are so different from the  characteristics of earlier generations of students that teachers do not yet have a sense of these 617Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... as elements useful in education, they do not know how to build on these; or • because the changes in the current generation of students are indeed only negative from the point of view of teaching and learning. A limitation is inherent in the  fact that we have no information on the  quality of the  respondents’ work. It would be useful to compare the  quality of teaching against the  teacher’s perception of the  students. A possible next step would be the observation and analysis of the  lessons taught by the  interviewed teachers and/or the  evaluation of their work by their students. With the  help of these methods it could be explored how the teachers’ attitudes toward students are manifested in a classroom environment, and how well the  best practices and methodological conclusions drawn can work. The next station of our analytical work will be to compare the self-evalu- ations of the students participating in the research project with the teachers’ perceptions discussed above. We should identify the points where the opin- ions of students and teachers are the same or significantly different. Conclusions In our paper, we examined the  experiences and perceptions of 42 teachers working in Hungarian economic higher education concerning their students, on the  basis of semi-structured in-depth interviews with the teachers. On the  basis of the  quantifiable results, the  majority of teachers considered the  changes related to the  student population with respect to learning as unfavourable. The  learning and the  teaching are rendered more difficult, for example, by the weakening of students’ motivation and commitment, which causes problems in terms of creating and maintaining attention and discipline. Students’ less thorough prior grounding and lack of general knowledge makes it more difficult for new elements of knowledge to be incorporated. Only few teachers identified positive changes. Objective or more balanced descriptions of students, containing positive and negative elements as well, only occurred in one-fifth of the cases. The qualitative analyses provide a  taste of the  diversity of teachers’ modes of thinking. The changes related to students were linked by teachers to the digital age and the use of devices to the point of addiction in 16% of the responses. The majority of these blame these for the deterioration of learning skills. Two respondents mentioned, however, that with the use of these devices, students can be more efficient in problem-solving, and that it is worth learning from them in this respect. 618 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The teachers interviewed also formulated some conclusions pertaining to the  relationships with students and to teaching methodologies. Some teachers feel that students do not consider teachers advantage in knowledge and leadership role as self-obvious. Others, however, welcomed the  shift in teacher-student relationship towards more of a  partnership. The respondents drew very different conclusions as far as the methods of teaching are concerned. Some would consider a more intensive use of digital devices advisable, while others think it would be best if they were banned. There were respondents arguing for a  simplification of the  language of the course materials, in contrast with those who believe the channels used for conveying the material are more important. We highlighted the student types described by the interviewees in quite some detail, such as: • eminent students; • critical, purposeful career-builders; • strugglers; • life artists; • scoundrels; • the aimless; • students working while studying or studying while working. We wish to continue our work with a deepening of the analyses, as well as on developing and offering trainings to support the teachers. In addition, we plan to extend our research to cover the  following questions: • To what extent does the  burden borne by teachers, weakened in their roles and exerting increased effort to be effective, accelerate exhaustion and burn-out? • Can teachers’ positive attitudes toward their tasks and the students be maintained, while their perception of the students is negative? On the basis of our findings, the proposed content of the trainings to be organized for the teachers: • the selection of methods appropriate to the  specific student characteristics; • the deepening of teachers’ knowledge concerning their students; • establishing a dialogue between teachers and students. After all we close our work useing the analogy of Professor Pál Michel- berger: “We expect birds to fly, swim and run well. Eagles are excellent flyers, but they cannot run or swim, ostriches are excellent runners, but they cannot swim or fly, while penguins are excellent swimmers, but they cannot fly and only waddle. On the other hand, gees can swim, run and fly a little bit, but they are not excellent in any of these. On my part, I would 619Beatrix Fűzi, Erzsébet Jármai. The Features and Types of University Students’ ... like to see more eagles, ostriches and penguins in higher education, and fewer geese.” (qtd. in Balázs, 2014:554). Acknowledgement The research project was realised with the  support of the  European Union from the EU EFOP-3.6.1-16-2016-00012 grant. Poject name: “With innovative solutions for improving efficiency of research and development and innovation actions of Zala county”. References Balázs, E. (2014). Tömegoktatás, elitoktatás és a  minőség [Mass Education, Elite Education and Quality]. Educatio, 2014/4. pp. 550–554. ISSN 1216-3384. Derényi, A. (2018). A  tanítás és tanulás minőségének javítása az elmúlt 10 évben [Improving the Quality of Teaching and Learning in the Last 10 Years]. In KOVÁTS, G., TEMESI, J. (eds.) A  magyar felsőoktatás egy évtizede 2008–2017 [One Decade of the  Hungarian Higher Education  – 2008–2017]. NFKK Kötetek 2. pp. 130–146. ISSN 2064-7654; ISBN 978-963-503-672-1. Fábri, Gy. (2014). “Kvalitatív és kvantitatív felmérés, országos és regionális reprezentatív attitűd vizsgálatok, elemzések, kutatás-fejlesztési szolgáltatás” [Qualitative and Quantitative Surveys, Nationally and Regionally Representative Attitude Research and Analysis, Research and Innovation Services] „Felsőoktatási szakpolitikai és fejlesztéspolitikai elemzések az ESZA fejlesztések tervezése érdekében” [Political Analysis for Planning the  Development of Higher Education]. TÁMOP-7.2.1-11/K-2012-0005. Fűzi, B (2019). Should We and Can We Motivate University Students? – The Analysis of the  Interpretation of the  Role and the  Teaching Methods of University Teachers. In Cermakova, K. and Rotschedl, J. (Ed.) (2019) Proceedings of the  7th Teaching & Education Conference, ISBN 978-80-87927-48-9, ISSN 2570-6551, London, pp. 36–57. DOI: 10.20472/TEC.2019.007.004. Fűzi, B. and SUPLICZ, S. (2016). The Indicators of the Quality and Changes of Teachers’ Work. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 4:8 pp. 1815–1827. Paper: DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2016.040811. Hrubos, I. (2014). Verseny  – értélekés  – rangsorok [Competition  – Evaluation  – Rankings]. Educatio, 2014/4. pp. 541–549. ISSN 1216-3384. Kálmán, O. (2004). A hallgatók tanulási sajátosságainak változásai a  felsőoktatás évei alatt [Changes in Learning in Higher Education]. Magyar Pedagógia, Vol. 104. No. 1. pp. 95–114. Khalid, A. (2013). Improving Student Interest in Engineering Curricula  – Exciting Students about their Classes. Universal Journal of Educational Research 1(1): 20–25, DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2013.010103 Lubicz-Nawrocka, T. and Bunting, K. (2019). Student perceptions of teaching excellence: an analysis of student-led teaching award nomination data. Teaching in Higher Education, 24:1, 63–80, DOI: 10.1080/13562517.2018.1461620. Magyari, G. (2010). Hogyan tanulnak a  ma középiskolásai  – a  holnap egyetemistái [How Do the Secondary School Students of Today Learn? – The University Students of 620 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Tomorrow]. In DOBÓ, I., PERJÉS, I., TEMESI, J. (eds.) Korszerű felsőoktatási pedagógiai módszerek, törekvések [Modern Pedagogical Methods and Intentions in Higher Education]. Konferencia-előadások. NFKK Füzetek 5. Corvinus, Budapest, pp. 32–39. NUS Student Experience Report (2008) https://www.nus.org.uk/PageFiles/4017/NUS_ StudentExperienceReport.pdf. Simándi, S. (2016). Fiatal és felnőtt hallgatók a  felsőoktatásban [Young and Adult Students in the  Higher Education  – Methodological Approaches and Challenges in the Higher Education]. A  felsőoktatás módszertani vetületei és kihívásai. EKF, Líceum Kiadó, Eger, 130 p. ISBN 978-615-5509-95-7 Solt, K., Lévai, R. S. and Szczuka, B. (2018). A lemorzsolódás okai és csökkentésére tett intézkedések a Budapesti Gazdasági Egyetemen [Reasons of the Drop Out and Actions Against It at the Budapest Business School]. In print. VIII. Trefort Ágoston Szakképzés- és Felsőoktatás-pedagógiai Konferencia. 621Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 LATVIA STUDENTS’ INTEREST IN DIFFERENT SCIENCE SUBJECT TOPICS Juris Porozovs University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Students’ interest in science subjects is insufficient in different countries. One of the main reasons of decreased students’ interest in science subjects is that often science subjects in schools are taught in a  traditional way, separated from real life, and it is difficult for students to relate their knowledge to their personal interests. The  aim of the  study was to clear out Latvia students’ interest in different science subjects and science subject topics. The  electronic survey of Latvia students from different specialities was carried out. 12th-grade secondary school students from two Riga schools, University of Latvia 1st course pedagogical specialities students, University of Latvia Riga Medical College 1st course doctors’ assistant program students and Latvian Academy of Music 1st-course students were surveyed. Altogether 235 students were questioned. The  results of the  research showed that the  interest of Latvia students from different specialities in physics and chemistry is rather low: many students have average interest in topics of these subjects. The  lowest interest in physics and chemistry from surveyed student groups have Latvian Academy of Music students. The  most interesting physics topic for all student groups is the  structure of  the  Universe. From chemistry subject topics secondary school students are more interested in types of chemical reactions and electrolytic dissociation theory and carbohydrates, fats and oils. The majority of the University of Latvia pedagogical specialities students are not interested in different topics of chemistry. Most of all Latvia students are interested in biology. University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students are most of all interested in biology from surveyed student groups. The  most interesting topics of biology for all student groups are genetics and gene engineering, the human organism, human health, origin and evolution of life and ecology. The majority of students have average interest in such topics as construction and diversity of plants. An important task of teachers is to find out a  way, how to raise students’ interest in science subjects. Teachers should use a  student-centred approach and interactive methods for teaching science subjects in order to achieve the personal interest of students in acquiring science subjects. Keywords: students, science subjects, interest, physics, chemistry, biology. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.45 Juris Porozovs Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics 622 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Introduction One of the  most important factors influencing the  growth of public well-being is students’ science literacy. Students’ science literacy has the essential role in the development of modern science and technologies driven economy (Cedere et  al., 2015). Nevertheless, investigations reveal the contradiction between the  increasing social needs and the  insufficient level of young peoples’ education in sciences (Birzina & Cedere, 2017). Studies have shown that different countries students have insufficient interest in science subjects (Cedere et al., 2014, Cedere et al., 2018). One of the  main reasons of decreased interest of different countries students in science subjects is that often science subjects in schools are taught in a traditional way, separated from real life, and it is difficult for students to relate their knowledge to their personal interests (Cedere et al., 2015). There are many factors affecting the motivation of pupils towards science subjects in modern educational practice. External factors could form the  positive attitude of pupils, such as cooperative projects of pupils, teachers and scientists, joint programs and dissemination of research activities. Some internal factors related with educational practice and constructive learning paradigm (integrated teaching and structured-coordinated research) are important as well (Pečiuliauskienė, 2012). Decreasing interest in Science among students calls for the need to revise the contents of the curricula for Science subjects, including Biology. Modern Biology curricula should not only contain key biological concepts but also provide a  teacher with sufficient space to develop students’ competencies of scientific work and positive attitudes to Science. When preparing the curriculum, it is necessary to consider also students’ interest in selected curriculum topics and their benefit for everyday life. The research confirmed the positive interest in Biology among the majority of students who prefer direct, active participation in the process of knowledge acquisition through the study and exploration of living organisms as well as by the execution and assessment of practical works and experiment (Čipkova et al., 2018). The  students’ attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs in science subjects should be taken into account in secondary school biology education, because gender stereotypes and low self-efficacy beliefs may affect students’ future career plans (Uitto, 2014). Several avenues are open to students who wish to study advanced science or mathematics in high school, which include Advanced Placement courses and teacher-designed courses unaffiliated with organized programs (Sadler et al., 2014). The successful way to gauge and foster students’ interest in science subjects is to understand the ways in which students express curiosity about the nature of an object, phenomena, or a given topic (Luce & Hsi, 2015). 623Juris Porozovs. Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics The  teacher’s personality and professional mastery have great importance on promoting students’ cognitive interest. Interactive teaching/learning methods developing analytical thinking and practical skills promote the acquisition of the  science subjects (Cedere et al., 2016). Studies have shown that integration into classroom the  science education of short presentations of cutting-edge science and emerging technologies has positive impact on students’ learning outcomes (Michael et  al., 2017). Career-related instructions implemented in secondary school science education is a way how to rise students’ interest in subject and to promote students’ science career awareness (Salonen et al., 2018). Teachers and professors of life science subjects have come to the  conclusion that many college students have difficulties in studying science subjects (mathematics, physics, chemistry), and they see the main reasons of these difficulties in shaky background of students arriving at the  college level and difficulties in seeing the  purpose of studying these subjects (Taly et  al., 2019). So it is necessary clearly demonstrate the  importance of studying these subjects and show them how concepts that might seem at first very abstract have a high practical use in biology. Previous experiences have taught that traditional lectures do not constitute an appropriate and efficient solution to these issues, even when a lot of care is put into showing examples and applications from biology. The  teachers found that effective way how to rise students’ interest about science subjects is the  one-week workshop. The  workshop adopts a  large variety of teaching methods including group activities, practical activities and online games and demonstrations. The goal of the workshops was to boost students’ interest and motivation by showing them through unconventional teaching how all subjects matter and how the knowledge from very different disciplines is needed to be able to tackle interesting and fundamental biological questions. For example, professors developed a workshop based on the theme of the interaction of biomolecules with drugs. Students were asked to investigate how caffeine and nicotine work at the  molecular level. Taking a wider perspective this concept and methods can be easily exported for the  other scientific disciplines. The  main key to developing similar workshops is to find the appropriate subject in which students are interested and to use appropriate pedagogical methods (Taly et al., 2019). The important question is how the  composition of the  courses affects the  domain-specificity of these constructs. Using data from a  large-scale study in Germany, scientists compared ninth-grade students who were taught science as an integrated subject with students who were taught biology, chemistry, and physics separately with regard to the dimensional structure of their self-concepts and interests (Jansen et al., 2019). Whereas the structure of the  constructs was six-dimensional in both groups (self-concept and 624 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 interest factors for biology, chemistry, and physics), the  correlations between the  domain-specific factors were higher in the  integrated group. The  pattern of gender differences differed across groups. Whereas male students generally showed higher self-concept and interest in physics and chemistry, a  small advantage for male students in biology was only present in integrated science teaching group. The  conclusion is that aspects of the learning environment such as course composition may affect the dimensional structure of motivational constructs (Jansen et al., 2019). Successful studies of young people in science-related professions and interest in these fields are closely correlated with the experience and interest in science subjects acquired during primary school. Research has shown that attending a high school with a science, technology, engineering, and/ or mathematics (STEM) program has a positive association with students’ STEM‐related outcomes (Bottia et  al., 2017). Studies have shown, that access to internet with appropriate speed, different databases, equipping the  research labs for scientific research and providing the  advanced laboratory devices, financial support of university research unit and encouraging the students in different ways, can strengthen the participation of students in conducting research activities and promote their scientific career (Safari et al., 2015). Aim of the Study The main goal of this research is to identify Latvia students’ interests in science subjects. An important task of teachers and educators is to rise students’ interest in science subjects. In order to rise this interest, it is necessary to find factors that influence students’ motivation to learn, methods which are most appropriate for rising students’ interest in science subjects and to know in which topics of science subjects different students are more interested. The aim of the study was to clear out different groups of Latvia students’ interest in science subjects and science subject topics. Materials and Methods The electronic survey of Latvia students from different specialties was carried out. 12th grade secondary school students from two Riga schools, the  University of Latvia 1st course pedagogical specialties students, the  University of Latvia Riga Medical College 1st course doctors’ assistant program students and Latvian Academy of Music 1st course students were surveyed. Altogether 235 students were questioned (96 secondary school students; 73 the  University of Latvia pedagogical specialties students; 34 the University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program 625Juris Porozovs. Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics students and 32 Latvian Academy of Music students). The  survey was worked out in order to clarify Latvia students’ interest in different science subjects and different science subject topics. Results Results of the survey about students’ interest in different science subjects are displayed in Figure 1 till Figure 3. Results of the research showed that the majority of students have average interest in physics (see Fig. 1). Only 11% of secondary school students are very interested and 16% of them are interested in physics. University of Latvia students are less interested in physics in comparison with secondary school students. Only 7% of the University of Latvia pedagogical specialties students and the University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students are very interested in physics, but 12% of pedagogical specialties students and 16% of doctors’ assistant program students are interested in physics. Figure 1. The interest of Latvia students from different specialties in physics (in % from the number of respondents in groups) Less of all interested in physics from different student groups are Latvian Academy of Music students: 23% of Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested in physics and 16% of Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested in physics at all. Many pedagogical specialties students also are not interested in physics: 21% of pedagogical specialties students are not interested in physics and 15% are not interested in physics at all. Latvia students’ interest in chemistry is not high as well (see Fig. 2). 9% of secondary school students are very interested in chemistry and 16% of them are interested in chemistry but the  majority of secondary school students (56%) have average interest in chemistry. Less of all interested in chemistry 626 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 are Latvian Academy of Music students: only 3% of them are very interested in chemistry and 7% are interested in chemistry but 27% of them are not interested in chemistry and 17% are not interested in chemistry at all. Figure 2. The interest of Latvia students from different specialties in chemistry (in % from the number of respondents in groups) Figure 3. The interest of Latvia students from different specialties in biology (in % from the number of respondents in groups) Latvia students’ interest in biology is higher than in physics and chemistry (see Fig. 3). Most of all interested in biology are Latvian University doctors’ assistant program students: 22% of them are very interested in biology and 45% are interested in biology. The other student groups are rather interested in biology: 15% of secondary school students are very interested in biology and 36% are interested in biology, 15% of pedagogical specialties students are very interested in biology and 35% are 627Juris Porozovs. Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics interested in biology. 12% of Latvian Academy of Music students are very interested in biology and 33% are interested in biology. Results of the survey about students’ interest in different science subject topics are displayed in Table 1 and Table 2. From topics connected with physics secondary school students are more interested in such topics as the structure of the Universe (27% of students are very interested and 46% of students are interested), electricity and magnetism (14% of students are very interested and 22% of students are interested) and radioactivity (9% of students are very interested and 36% of students are interested) (see Table 1). Secondary school students are less interested in thermodynamics (21% of secondary school students are not interested at all) and particle physics (17% of secondary school students are not interested at all). Table 1. Latvia secondary school students and University of Latvia pedagogical specialties students interest in different science subject topics (in % from the number of respondents in groups) Topics Secondary school students University students (pedagogical specialities) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Mechanics 6 17 55 19 3 11 17 34 19 19 Thermodynamics 2 7 52 18 21 4 11 31 29 25 Electricity and magnetism 14 22 52 9 3 6 19 29 23 23 Waves and quantum physics 9 17 46 19 9 4 13 35 29 19 Radioactivity 9 36 32 18 5 7 15 25 39 14 Particle physics 6 11 37 31 17 2 6 31 42 19 The structure of the Universe 27 46 18 9 0 13 29 34 12 12 Properties of substances 9 17 46 11 17 7 13 33 31 16 Types of chemical reactions 4 33 43 9 11 6 19 25 27 23 Electrolytic dissociation theory 6 24 32 19 19 4 11 21 41 23 Electrolysis 5 9 52 17 17 4 11 23 39 23 Spirits, carboxylic acids and amino acids 9 9 46 27 9 2 8 25 40 25 Carbohydrates, fats and oils 9 21 34 27 9 2 19 31 27 21 Construction and diversity of plants 18 37 27 16 2 11 39 32 9 9 Construction and diversity of animals 25 37 27 9 2 17 38 31 8 6 Human organism 27 40 29 4 0 36 25 29 4 6 Human health 29 49 18 4 0 52 27 17 2 2 Origin and evolution of life 32 52 9 7 0 25 29 36 6 4 Cell structure 4 17 52 25 2 13 21 45 12 9 Diversity of living organisms 9 48 21 18 4 19 31 39 5 6 Genetics and gene engineering 37 37 17 9 0 44 31 21 2 2 Ecology 9 21 52 18 0 15 33 37 6 9 Note: 1 – very interested; 2 – interested; 3 – average interest; 4 – not interested; 5 – not interested at all 628 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 University pedagogical specialties students are more interested in the  structure of the  Universe (13% of students are very interested and 29% of students are interested) and mechanics (11% of students are very interested and 17% of students are interested). University doctors’ assistant program students are interested in the  structure of the Universe (9% of students are very interested and 15% of students are interested) (see Table 2) but they are not interested in waves and quantum physics, thermodynamics and radioactivity. The  majority of Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested in topics of physics, except the structure of the Universe. From chemistry subject topics secondary school students are more interested in types of chemical reactions (4% of students are very interested and 33% of students are interested) and electrolytic dissociation theory (6% of students are very interested and 24% of students are interested). The  majority of the  University of Latvia pedagogical specialties students are not interested in different topics of chemistry such as spirits, carboxylic acids and amino acids (25% of the  University of Latvia pedagogical specialties students are not interested at all), types of chemical reactions, electrolytic dissociation theory, electrolysis (23% of the  University of  Latvia pedagogical specialties students are not interested at all). Some of the  University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students are interested in such topics of chemistry as properties of substances and types of chemical reactions (11% of students are very interested in these themes). The majority of Latvian Academy of Music students have average interest or they are not interested in different topics connected with chemistry, such as electrolysis (24% of Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested at all) and electrolytic dissociation theory (22% of Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested at all). All student groups are more interested in biology subject topics in comparison with topics of physics and chemistry. Students are especially interested in such topics as: genetics and gene engineering (37% of secondary school students, 44% of University pedagogical specialties students, 33% of University doctors’ assistant program students and 15% of Latvian Academy of Music students are very interested in these themes); human organism (27% of secondary school students, 36% of University pedagogical specialties students, 27% of University doctors’ assistant program students and 22% of Latvian Academy of Music students are very interested in these themes); human health (29% of secondary school students, 52% of University pedagogical specialties students, 34% of University doctors’ assistant program students and 27% of Academy of Music students are very interested in these themes) and origin and evolution 629Juris Porozovs. Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics of life (32% of secondary school students, 25% of University pedagogical specialties students, 18% of University doctors’ assistant program students and 14% of Latvian Academy of Music students are very interested in these themes). Table 2. University of Latvia doctors’ assistant program students and Latvian Academy of Music students’ interest in different science subject topics (in % from the number of respondents in groups) Topics University students (doctors’ assistant program) Latvian Academy of Music students 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Mechanics 5 14 46 22 13 2 2 43 37 16 Thermodynamics 3 11 45 24 17 0 2 38 41 19 Electricity and magnetism 5 11 56 15 13 3 6 53 27 11 Waves and quantum physics 2 9 44 24 21 2 3 37 37 21 Radioactivity 7 11 23 38 21 2 9 37 33 19 Particle physics 5 17 34 22 22 0 4 41 31 24 The structure of the Universe 9 15 42 22 12 11 6 56 27 0 Properties of substances 11 17 44 16 12 4 6 44 37 9 Types of chemical reactions 11 18 39 18 14 5 9 46 23 17 Electrolytic dissociation theory 2 11 33 33 21 2 5 41 30 22 Electrolysis 3 21 54 11 11 3 6 40 27 24 Spirits, carboxylic acids and amino acids 7 11 33 28 21 7 9 43 26 15 Carbohydrates, fats and oils 9 22 22 28 19 6 11 45 25 13 Construction and diversity of plants 11 21 33 22 13 11 17 48 20 4 Construction and diversity of animals 14 22 34 19 11 17 21 47 11 4 Human organism 27 34 39 0 0 22 33 44 9 2 Human health 34 37 29 0 0 27 41 27 5 0 Origin and evolution of life 18 22 49 11 0 14 33 45 4 4 Cell structure 11 36 42 11 0 12 15 55 14 4 Diversity of living organisms 17 38 41 2 2 17 19 53 9 2 Genetics and gene engineering 33 56 11 0 0 15 26 48 7 4 Ecology 33 45 22 0 0 17 24 52 5 2 Note: 1 – very interested; 2 – interested; 3 – average interest; 4 – not interested; 5 – not interested at all Students are also interested in topics connected with ecology, for example, 33% of the  University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students are very interested and 45% of them are interested in these topics. The majority of students have average interest in such topics as construction and diversity of plants. 630 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The results of current research correlate with the results of other studies, which suggest that students usually have the higher interest in biology but the interest in chemistry and physics is lower (Lamanauskas et al., 2004). An important task for teachers is to find out a way, how to raise students’ interest in science subjects. The methods which raise students’ interest in science and help gaining understanding about the  nature of the  science are experiment demonstrations and laboratory works (Cedere et al., 2016) and group works and discussions (Porozovs et al., 2015), and teachers are advised to use these methods during lessons. Conclusions 1. The interest of Latvia students from different specialities in physics and chemistry is rather low: many students have average interest in these subjects. Latvia students’ interest in biology is higher than in physics and chemistry. 2. From topics connected with physics students are most of all interested in the  structure of the  Universe. Secondary school students are also interested in electricity and magnetism and radioactivity, University of Latvia pedagogical specialties students in mechanics but University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students in radioactivity. The  majority of Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested in topics of physics. 3. From chemistry subject topics secondary school students are more interested in types of chemical reactions, electrolytic dissociation theory and carbohydrates, fats and oils but University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students in types of chemical reactions and carbohydrates, fats and oils. The  majority of the  University of Latvia pedagogical specialities students and Latvian Academy of Music students are not interested in different topics of chemistry. 4. The most interesting topics of biology for all student groups are genetics and gene engineering, the human organism, human health, origin and evolution of life and ecology. Most of all interested in biology from surveyed student groups are the  University of Latvia Riga Medical College doctors’ assistant program students. References Birzina, R., & Cedere, D. (2017). The first year students’ perceptions of higher studies: a  case of University of Latvia. In V. Dislere (Eds.), Rural environment, education, personality (pp. 40–49). Jelgava: Latvia University of Agriculture. Bottia, M. C., Stearns, E., Mickelson R. A., & Moller, S. (2017). Boosting the numbers of STEM majors? The  role of high schools with a  STEM program. Science Education, 631Juris Porozovs. Latvia Students’ Interest in Different Science Subject Topics 102,  85–107. DOI:10.1002/sce.21318 Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/epdf/10.1002/sce.21318. Cedere, D., Gedrovics, J., Bilek, M., & Mozeika, D. (2014). Changes of 15 years old students’ interest in science in Latvia: 2003–2013. In M. Bilek (Eds.), Science and technology education for the 21st century, (pp. 103–112). Hradec Králové: Gaudeamus. Cēdere, D., Jurgena, I., Helmane, I., Tiltiņa-Kapele, I., & Praulīte, G. (2015). Cognitive Interest: Problems and Solutions in the Acquisition of Science and Mathematics in Schools of Latvia. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 14(4), 424–434. Retrieved from http:// www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/files/pdf/vol14/424-434.Cedere_JBSE_Vol.14_No.4.pdf. Cēdere, D., Jurgena, I., & Praulīte, G. (2016). Possibilities of Promoting Students’ Cognitive Interest in Science Subjects. Engineering for Rural Development – International Scientific Conference, 511–516. Retrieved from http://www.tf.llu.lv/conference/ proceedings2016/Papers/N094.pdf Cēdere, D, Jurgena, I., & Targamadze, V. (2018). Interest of Latvian and Lithuanian Students in Science and Mathematics. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 17(1), 31–42. Čipková, E., Karolčík, Š., Dudová, N., & Nagyová, S. (2018). What is the  students’ interest in biology after the biology curriculum modification? Curriculum Journal. 29(3), 370–386. DOI: 10.1080/09585176.2017.1406811. Jansen, M., Schroeders, U., Lüdtke, O., & Marsh. H. V. (2019). The dimensional structure of students’ self-concept and interest in science depends on course composition. Learning and Instruction, 60, 20–28. Lamanauskas, V., Gedrovics, J., & Raipulis, J. (2004). Senior Pupils’ Views and Approach to Natural Science Education in Lithuania and Latvia. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 3(1), 13–23. Luce, M. R., & His, S. (2015). Science-Relevant Curiosity Expression and Interest in Science: An Exploratory Study. Science Education, 99(1), 70–97. Michael, J. B., Ling, L., Kuay-Keng, Y., & Huann-shyang, L. (2017). A  Science for Citizenship Model: Assessing the  Effects of Benefits, Risks, and Trust for Predicting Students’ Interest in and Understanding of Science-Related Content. Research in Science Education, 47(5), 965–988. Pečiuliauskienė, P. (2012). Educational Factors Affecting Positive Attitude of Pupils Towards Science Subjects. Pedagogy Studies / Pedagogika. 2012, 105, 32–39. Porozovs, J., Liepniece, L., & Voita, D. (2015). Evaluation of the  Teaching Methods Used in Secondary School Biology Lessons. Signum Temporis, 7(1), 60–66. DOI 10.1515/sigtem-2016-0009 Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 332577437_Evaluation_of_the_Teaching_Methods_Used_in_Secondary_School_Biology_ Lessons. Safari, Y., Navazeshkhah, F., Azizi, M., Ziaei, M., & Sharafi, K. (2015). The  Effective Factors on the Postgraduate Students’ Interest and Participation in Performing Research Activities – Case Study: Kermanshah University of Medical Science. Future of Medical Education Journal, 5(2), 3–9. DOI: 10.22038/FMEJ.2015.4454 Retrieved from http:// fmej.mums.ac.ir/article_4454.html. Sadler, P. M., Sonnert, G., Hazari, Z. & Tai, R. (2014). The Role of Advanced High School Coursework in Increasing STEM Career Interest. Science Educator, 23 (1), 1–13. Retrieved from https://www.nsela.org/assets/The%20Role%20of%20Advanced%20High%20School% 20Coursework%20in%20Increasing%20STEM%20Career%20Interest.pdf. 632 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Salonen, A., Kärkkäinen, S., & Keinonen, T. (2018). Career-Related Instruction Promoting Students’ Career Awareness and Interest towards Science Learning. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 19(2), 474–483. DOI: 10.1039/C7RP00221A. Taly, A., Nitti, F., Baaden, M. & Pasquali, S. (2019). Molecular modelling as the spark for ac-tive learning approaches for interdisciplinary biology teaching. Interface Focus, 9 (3): 20180065. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2018.0065 Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2018.0065. Uitto, A. (2014). Interest, Attitudes and Self-Efficacy Beliefs Explaining Upper-Secondary School Students’ Orientation Towards Biology-Related Careers. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12 (6), 1425–1444. 633Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE IMPACT OF NATIVE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ON FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE CASE OF CHINESE STUDENTS LEARNING THE LATVIAN LANGUAGE Anna Stavicka University of Latvia, Latvia Indra Odiņa University of Latvia, Latvia Anna Sedova Riga Technical University, Latvia ABSTRACT Multilingual and multicultural learning space has become the  apparent  reality students need to function in. Foreign language (FL) teaching  methodology is one of the  key areas FL educators focus attention on in view of the necessity to elaborate practices taking into account the  cultural peculiarities and background of diverse target audiences. While  the elaboration of FL teaching methodology for common languages is obviously the core activity of numerous scholars worldwide, less common languages within foreign language teaching and learning need conscious and thought-through attention to be paid to. The introduction of the Latvian language as a  foreign language to Chinese students dates back to 2011 when the  first comprehensive  course in the  Latvian language as an elective course was launched in  Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) in the  People’s Republic of  China. Since then another university  – Beijing International Studies  University (BISU)  – introduced the study programme on the Latvian language and culture in 2015. The article explores the case of Chinese students of BISU learning the Latvian language as a foreign language focusing specifically on the impact of their native language and cultural background on foreign language learning. Given that language is one of the  key markers of identity, the  results  of the  study revealed that such factors as similarities and differences  in the  structure of languages impact the  successful FL acquisition and  should be taken into account in the  process of the  development of FL  courses for students of diverse backgrounds. Every level of linguistic  structure is to be addressed in a  particular way providing the  comprehensive framework for learning the Latvian language from the Chinese speakers’ perspective. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.46 Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova The Impact of Native Language ... 634 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The research was conducted in the framework of the project “Multilingual and Multicultural University: Preparation Platform for Prospective  International Students” (No. 1.1.1.2/ VIAA/1/16/019) co-funded by ERDF. Keywords: Chinese students, Latvian as a foreign language learning, multilingual and multicultural learning space. Introduction Under the policy of The Belt and Road Initiative and 17+1 Framework of cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European Countries, the  links between People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the  Republic of Latvia are becoming stronger and education field is one of the  main priorities for both parties. Over the  last several decades Chinese students have become increasingly visible in the  European higher education area.  According to official statistical data (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2018), 608400 Chinese students studied abroad in 2017, which makes PRC the more and more important market also for Latvian higher education institutions. Although the  educational migration from China may still be driven by state programmes as in the  afore-mentioned case, the career strategies of individual Chinese students and their families are coming to the fore (Thøgersen, 2016). The research on the experience of Chinese students enrolled in Latvian higher education programmes and on the institutions that receive them is very limited. In order to meet the  needs of incoming students from PRC and to be an attractive destination for them, it is crucial for Latvian higher education institutions to understand the  background of the  students for their successful integration into Latvian higher education space and to provide a  competitive education offer, which would address the needs of the particular target group. The article reports the  selected results, namely, the  results of the  narrative analysis, of the  study conducted in the  framework of the project “Multilingual  and Multicultural University: Preparation Platform for Prospective  International Students” (No. 1.1.1.2/VIAA/1/16/019). The  overall goal of the  project is to contribute to successful integration of prospective international applicants through the  development of the integration framework addressing the language and cultural needs for the studies in Latvian higher education institutions. The research problem is determined by the  indispensable and urgent necessity to explore the potential and the actual state of internationalisation process implementation in the sector of higher education in Latvia placing integration of international students of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in the Latvian education space as the main research focus. 635Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova. The Impact of Native Language ... Therefore, the  ultimate vision of the  project is to create structured, innovative framework for the integration of potential international students in the Latvian learning space aiming to provide them with the possibility to experience host country culture and gain the necessary knowledge and skills to successfully adjust to the new environment and context of the host country (Latvia). The Aim of the Study In Latvia there is no in-depth research on the  peculiarities of the  integration of Mandarin Chinese speaking students of Asian origin in Latvian higher education space as well as there is no research on challenges related to language learning and support provision to resolve them. Therefore, the research aimed to: 1) explore which strategies Chinese university students use for foreign language learning, and 2) identify how the target students’ language and cultural background impacts the process of the Latvian language learning, namely, gain understanding of the pattern for the Latvian language learning among Chinese university students. Theoretical Background Higher education (HE) internationalisation has become one of the  top state priorities, which is reiterated in the  missions and visions of Latvian higher education institutions, as it is the most significant indicator of global competitiveness. The  revised definition states that internationalisation is “the intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution to society” (de Wit et al., 2015: http://www.europarl.europa.eu). Drennen (2002) presents a  list of criteria relevant for consideration within the  HE curriculum design aimed at achieving the  key goal of internationalisation initiatives. The criteria identified may form the basis for the template for the purposes of planning, implementing and evaluating the international curriculum within the HE: 1. developing citizens of the world to live together; 2. building and reinforcing a student’s sense of identity and cultural awareness; 3. fostering the recognition and development of universal human values; 4. stimulating curiosity and inquiry to foster a  spirit of discovery and enjoyment of learning; 5. equipping students with the  skills to learn and acquire knowledge, individually or collaboratively, and to apply these skills and knowledge across a broad range of areas; 6. providing international content whilst responding to local requirements and interests; 7. encouraging 636 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 diversity and flexibility in pedagogical approaches; 8. providing appropriate forms of assessment and international benchmarking (Drennen, 2002). It is apparent that internationalisation strategies should go beyond mobility issues. It is high time to focus on the central issue within the higher education internationalisation perspective  – equipping the  graduates to effectively function in the  global economy, which is impossible without ensuring the  learning environment which would fit the  needs of these graduates and promote their successful functioning in the multilingual and multicultural space. Henze and Zhu (2012) have reviewed the data available in the academic literature on the  problems and challenges Chinese students enrolled in the higher education programmes abroad face. They specifically highlight the language-related problems – both with the English language and a second foreign language they need to learn alongside with other problems (Henze, Zhu, 2012). Recent research (e.g., Weeks & Fugate, 2012; Smith, 2013; Baker, 2014, Druviete, 2014) reveals that the  language issues introduced above related to the development towards the international learning space present challenges that go beyond the promotion, maintenance and elaboration of local language/ languages or second language acquisition and learning of a  foreign language (FL) and developing a  sufficiently high proficiency in the FL in question. There are other aspects which need to be explored and critically analysed in the effort towards the development of the international HEI (Higher Education Institution). These are, most pertinently, the cultural backgrounds of students as well as educators and other parties involved in the  education process. In other words, in an international HEI, the  main objective for every individual involved in the process is to learn to navigate in the transforming environment of the country and culture in which the HEI is situated. This type of environment is frequently termed Multilingual and Multicultural Learning Space (Stavicka, 2015). Research Methodology The theoretical and empirical project framework was developed in the  pragmatic paradigm applying mixed-method research (MMR) strategy utilizing both quantitative and qualitative research methodology in accordance with the core idea of the approach. The multi-strategy (mixed- method) (Robson, 2011) approach to research project design is chosen, as to achieve the research aim, a substantial element of qualitative data collection as well as a substantial element of quantitative data collection are necessary. The chosen approach is appropriate for it allows to both combine research methods and use more than one research strategy. The mixed method research (established for more than 50 years) has gained an increased interest and 637Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova. The Impact of Native Language ... is commonly used in the field of education research. Within the pragmatic paradigm, which underlies the chosen methodology, the utilization of MMR serves as a framework, which uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to address distinct specific questions to contribute to the same overall goal of the project “Multilingual and Multicultural University: Preparation Platform for Prospective International Students”. Within the  MMR study designed, the combination of qualitative and quantitative data from different samples of respondents (e.g., Chinese students, lecturers and education experts collected at Beijing International Studies University (PRC) in March, 2018; international students of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds; lecturers, education experts at Latvian, Turkish and Lithuanian HEIs) to address a  single goal, combining qualitative and quantitative evidence is being applied considering both data sets in an integrated approach. MMR allows to study the  phenomenon of internationalisation from different perspectives combining the  rich insights on the  complex phenomena from qualitative study, with the  standardized, generalizable data generated through quantitative research allowing to resolve the provisional challenges rooted in the weaknesses of each approach. Within the study, narrative analysis was applied as a research strategy. Two types of narratives provided by BISU students in the year 2018 were processed, analysed and interpreted in accordance with the  codes: power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long- or short-term orientation and indulgence vs. restrain, derived based on the Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory (Hofstede, 1984; Hofstede et al., 2010). Since the  teachers and students used the  English language as the medium language in their daily and classroom communication and the  level of the  English language proficiency was sufficient to complete the  task, students provided their feedback in English. In accordance with the  aim of the  research, in total 26 students provided 52 narratives on their personal opinions on their studies and well-being, as well as on their evaluation of the teaching/ learning process stating all the aspects helping them to learn the  new foreign language and all the  obstacles hindering the learning process. The present article reports the selected results obtained in the framework of the narrative analysis applied as a research approach within the broader methodological framework. Research Sample and Setting The implementation of The  Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) by the government of People’s Republic in China (PRC) substantiates the need for professionals with the  sufficient knowledge of the  Latvian language. The introduction of the Latvian language as a foreign language to Chinese 638 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 students dates back to 2011 when the first comprehensive programme on the Latvian language and culture studies prepared by the Latvian Language Agency as an elective course was launched in  Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) in the  PRC. Since then another university  – Beijing International Studies University (BISU) – introduced the programme with the Latvian major in 2015. According to data provided by the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (n.d.: http://www.moe.gov.cn), in September 2015 BISU launched the experimental programme “Beijing Municipal Commission on 7-Year Education Programme of Beijing International Studies University. The  Latvian Language and Culture Programme”. Twenty high school students representing different districts of Beijing were selected to enrol in the  programme and relocate to BISU campus. The  curriculum of the  “7-Year Education Programme” presupposed the  study of the  Latvian language and the subject titled “National Conditions of Latvia” for 2 years in BISU alongside with general high school subjects in accordance with the National Education Standard for PRC. Alongside the  intensive Latvian language courses, during the  study years in Beijing, the  students of the 7-year programme are expected to complete the courses in accordance with the  following curriculum: Chinese Language and Culture, Maths and Logical Thinking, Personal Development, Fundamental English, Oral English, Ideology and Politics, Chinese History, Chinese Geography, Physical Education and Health Education, Artistic Performance, Social Activities/ Extracurricular Activities/ Professional Internship (BISU, 2019a). Upon the  completion of the first stage, one year of the  Latvian language study programme (120 ECTS) comprising such subjects as: History of Latvian Culture, History of Technical Sciences, Functional Communication, Latvian as a Research Language, Introduction into Academic Studies and Research Work, Academic Writing, Basic Grammar Course, Studies of the  State Language, English Language, Functional Stylistics of the Latvian Language, Intensive Latvian Language Course, Latvian for Part-time Students, Latvian for Foreign Students, Latvian Language Communication Culture, Latvian Lexicology, Analytical Reading in Latvian, Introduction to Linguistics, Communication Theory and Practice in Latvian, etc. had to be completed in Latvia (RTU, n.d.). Upon the  completion of the  study year in Latvia, the  students had to go back to China to gain the  graduation certificate of vocational education equal to high school diploma (Beijing Education Committee, 2018) and return to Latvia for 3 years to obtain a  bachelor degree related to one of the study fields within the Latvian language studies (e.g. Technical Translation Programme) (RTU, 2013). So far, the three afore- mentioned stages of the programme have been piloted. In September 2019, the students are expected to go back to Latvia to complete the final stage of 639Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova. The Impact of Native Language ... the programme, namely, get enrolled in the bachelor study programme and complete the chosen degree programme. In 2016 a  new bachelor programme “The Latvian Language and Literature” was launched in BISU (BISU, 2019b). Fourteen students formed the first intake on the  basis of China’s National College Entrance Examination (Gaokao) (Xinhua, 2017). In 2017 the  second group of 12 students enrolled in the same programme. The curriculum of BISU undergraduate programme “The Latvian Language and Literature” is as follows (BISU, 2019b): • during the  first study year students study the  following subjects: Basic Latvian Language I, Basic Audio-Visual Latvian Language I, National Conditions of Latvia, Basic Latvian Language II, Basic Audio-Visual Latvian Language II; • during the  second study year the  following courses are delivered: Intermediate Latvian Language I, Intermediate Audio-Visual Latvian Language I, Latvian Folklore, History of Latvia I, Intermediate Latvian Language II, Intermediate Audio-Visual Latvian Language II, History of Latvia II and Latvian Culture; • during the third study year students have to complete the programme “Technical Translation” (2nd study year for international students) conducted by the Faculty of E-Learning Technologies and Humanities at Riga Technical University in Riga, Latvia; • in the  fourth study year in BISU, Beijing, China, students are supposed to complete the following subjects: Latvian Press Readings, Latvian Literature I, Latvian Literature II, Latvian Translation, Chinese Culture in Latvian Language and to develop a thesis (BISU, 2019b). All the subjects are delivered by the teaching staff from Riga Technical University, each year having 2 to 3 teachers. Studies are conducted in the  Latvian, English and Chinese languages based on the  teachers’ professional expertise. Results and Discussion The narrative analysis of the  data provided by 26 students gives the insight to the patterns Chinese students use for foreign language learning. The codes were derived based on the Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory (Hofstede, 1984; Hofstede et al., 2010): power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long- or short-term orientation and indulgence vs. restrain. The Power Distance scores for China (80) provide the  information on the  dependence relationships (Hofstede et al., 2010: 57) in the  country 640 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 revealing the  obvious dependence of students on educators, which is confirmed in the  narratives provided by the  respondents (e.g., “we don’t dare to question teachers in classes”). Given that Latvia scores 44 for this dimension, the  clear tendency towards the  more limited dependence of students on educators may lead to the  challenges for educators to meet the  needs of this particular target audience. Moreover, Latvian educators may consciously or subconsciously be ready to deal with students questioning and challenging their educators, while not being able to respond to “the need for dependence well established in the student’s mind” (Hofstede et al., 2010: 69). Given that the education process in the high- power distance countries is generally teacher-centered and students are used to following strict orders (ibid.), it may not be easy for them to adjust to the Latvian education settings predetermining the necessity to be more active and autonomous. To proceed, China and Latvia can be found on the  opposite poles in the  Individualism vs. Collectivism dimension scoring 20 and 70 respectively (Hofstede et al., 2010), which leads to the necessity for Latvian educators to review their teaching strategies and practices taking into account that students from collectivist countries may view themselves as part of the  group, which affects their behavior and activities in the  classroom (e.g., “The “one by one” method of asking questions in the classroom. Because when someone is being asked, he is nervous… and just manage to pass? And other people will [be] distracted observing the  process…”, “I think you might feel confused all the  time wondering why we are so quiet in class and don’t answer sometimes. The reason isn’t the language only – it is the character, and also about the  education we received before”, “When it comes to speaking, the words are all gone”, “it is still uncomfortable for me to talk in front of many people”). It is also crucial to highlight that within the individualist culture classrooms, “speaking one’s mind is a virtue”(Hofstede et al., 2010: 107), while for collectivist cultures sharing feelings and emotions is challenging (e.g., “To describe what I want to be or what I think of the  class? I don’t want to do it. Because that is something which is always in my heart and it doesn’t need to be spoken out and cannot be spoken out”, “We just need time to open ourselves”). Other important concepts related to collectivist society identified in the narratives were shame and face which stand for “the proper relationship with one’s social environment, which is as essential to a person (and that person’s family) as the  front part of his or her head” (Hofstede et al., 2010: 110), for instance, “Chinese are always stubborn and use some foolish ways to learn a  foreign language”, “we face some a  little embarrassing situations in class”, “what I can do is just to accept this”, “ashamed of myself”, “I have many shortcomings”, “I am too shy”). Another significant difference is that within the collectivist cultures, patriotism is the ideal (Hofstede et al., 641Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova. The Impact of Native Language ... 2010: 30) (e.g., “There are many delicious Chinese dishes in our canteen”, “you are going to learn Chinese, it’s my honour to help”, “to find a  way to make a  strong connection between Chinese culture and Latvian culture”, “we can improve our relation by eating and talking together”, “I can do something to make Latvia and China good friends in the future”, “try more Chinese food and get happiness there”, “to pay back to the country in the future”, “it is a rarely used Chinese character which means “versatile”). Given that in the  individualist societies, such as Latvia, the  purpose of receiving education is more focused on “learning to cope with new, unknown, unforeseen situations” and finding one’s place in the  society (Hofstede et al., 2010: 118), the  goals students coming from collectivist countries put forward for themselves within the  education process may be completely opposite. The data obtained from the respondents confirms that the  role of diplomas for the  members of collectivist societies differs from that of individualist one revealing that for Chinese students it is “a ticket to a ride” (Hofstede et al., 2010: 119) rather than the need for self- respect rooted in the ability to master a  subject and gaining the  sense of achievement (ibid.) (e.g., “that is […] the Chinese exam-oriented education”, “high mark in test”, “I care about grades too much” “to achieve better results”, “I think my goal is specific and measurable”, “put strong focus and effort into completing my homework”, “hard practice day by day”). As concerns the  dimension Masculinity vs. Femininity, Latvia with the  score 9 and China scoring 66 also have significant differences which have to be managed within the multilingual and multicultural classroom. Students from more masculine countries such as China may be willing to take exams again and again until they receive the acceptable or the highest grade possible (Hofstede et al., 2010: 161), while Latvian students may not always strive for excellence (e.g., “I think because of the different traditions and differences between our countries, sometimes foreign teachers don’t really understand why Chinese students pay much attention to exams and grades, …”). Even though the  collectivist norms put limit on open competition with each other (ibid.), failing is viewed as a  very serious incident (e.g., “my future”, “GPA [grade point average] is really important for me”). It is also crucial to highlight that within the feminine societies such as Latvia, these are the educators’ social and communication skills and the ability to build friendly classroom atmosphere  – which are of primary importance, while in the  masculine cultures  – this is the  correlation between educators’ excellence and students’ academic performance given that the  masculine society is highly success-driven. The scores for the  dimension Uncertainty Avoidance reveal that Latvia scoring 63 and China with the  scores 30 may have certain differences in the  students’ learning habits and different expectations as regards 642 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  learning process organization. Within this dimension, the  stronger uncertainty avoidance cultures such as China generally give preference to structured learning situations and less space given to creativity and freedom, which has already been highlighted in the analysis of the data for the Power Distance dimension. The  Chinese students in the  Latvian classroom may expect the educators to have all the answers and to be the leaders within the  education process, while the Latvian educators may be implementing their professional practices based on their strive to develop the autonomy and creativity of their students (e.g., “Unlike the  traditional method we use here in China, you show us a  completely different way of language learning”, “I can recite but I still can’t use these things well”, “if only we could review what we have learnt more”, “learn new words by reading texts”, “give us some example sentence, we can memorize these examples”, “I hope the  class could focus more on memorization before they have enough accumulation”). Within the  dimensions Long-Term vs. Short-Term and Indulgence vs. Restrain, Latvia (scores 69 and 13 respectively) and China (scores 87 and 24  respectively) (Hofstede et al., 2010) appear to be on the  same pole, which points to similar tendency towards the  focus on persistence, perseverance and long-term success, which has direct correlation with less attention and time given to leisure and effort invested in hard work to achieve long-term goals (e.g., “Keep learning is the most perfect answer.”, “put strong focus and effort into completing my homework”, “hard practice day by day”, “I want to challenge myself”). To conclude, different value patterns and cultural peculiarities lead to challenges rooted in differences in values related to power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long- or short-term orientation and indulgence vs. restrain. These differences have significant impact on the  classroom interaction between the educator and the students of diverse cultural backgrounds as well as among students themselves. Apart from the immediate necessity to raise the awareness of both educators and students of the need to explore the diversity of world cultures, the issues of language proficiency and foreign language proficiency specifically as the  key tool for communication have long been placed to the  fore within the education research and practices. Sufficient language proficiency level leads to more effective integration in the multilingual and multicultural learning space. It is apparent that there are many more aspects to be explored to resolve intercultural problems within specific contexts, therefore, further research will address differences in institutional practices, differences in cognitive abilities as well as teaching methodologies, etc. 643Anna Stavicka, Indra Odiņa, Anna Sedova. The Impact of Native Language ... Conclusion The article explored the  narratives of 26 Mandarin Chinese speaking students in Beijing International Studies University on their Latvian language learning patterns and their attitudes towards the  learning process. The  findings of the  study can contribute to the  development of the guidelines for the  integration of students of Asian origin into Latvian higher education space providing the insight to the needs of this particular target group while studying abroad. The study revealed the strong connection between the native language and cultural background of the students with their foreign language learning patterns. In the process of the Latvian language learning students rely on the patterns within their traditional education culture, such as collectivism and teacher-orientated class routine, working in team for achieving goals, taking exams as the stimulus for studies, deep respect towards the nation and acknowledgement of the  personal impact on the  achievement of the  common goal. The  students give preference to acquiring the  new knowledge through memorizing and reciting. The selected research findings will form the  basis for further exploration of the  phenomenon of higher education internationalisation and the  peculiarities of the  integration of specific target groups (e.g. the international students, particularly Mandarin Chinese speaking students of Asian origin) in the multilingual and multicultural learning space. References Baker, D. P. (2014). Schooled Society: The Educational Transformation of Global Culture. Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA. BISU. (2019a). Seven-Year Programme of Beijing International Studies University. BISU School of European Languages, Literature and Culture Archive. BISU. (2019b). Undergraduate Programme of Beijing International Studies University. BISU School of European Languages, Literature and Culture Archive. de Wit, H., Hunter, F., Howard, L., & Egron-Polak, E. (2015). Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion Policies: Culture and Education. Internationalisation of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.europarl. europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/540370/IPOL_STU%282015%29540370_ EN.pdfhttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/540370/ IPOL_STU%282015%29540370_EN.pdf. Drennen, H. (2002). Criteria for Curriculum Continuity in International Education. // In: Hayden, M., Thompson, J., Walker, G. International Education in Practice: Dimensions for National & International Schools. Kogan Page, London. Druviete, I. (2014). English in Latvia: Symbol of European Identity, Tool for Career Promotion or “The Third Force”? European National Language Institutions’ Attitudes and 644 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Policies towards English as European Lingua Franca. Sociolinguistica. International Yearbook of European Sociolinguistics. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gryuter, 69–88. Henze,  J.  and  Zhu,  J.  (2012).  Current Research on Chinese Students Studying Abroad. Research in Comparative and International Education, 7, 1. Retrieved from http:// datubazes.lanet.lv:2118/10.2304/rcie.2012.7.1.90CrossRef  Hofstede, G. (1984).  Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (2nd ed.). Beverly Hills CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-8039-1444-X. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (3rd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Ministry of Education of the  People’s Republic of China. (n.d.). Standard of National Education of China. Retrieved from: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A26/ s8001/201801/t20180115_324647.html. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2018). China Statistical Yearbook 2018. China Statistics Press Retrieved from http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2018/indexeh.htm. Robson, C. (2011). Real World Research. UK: Wiley. RTU. (n.d.). Technical Translation Programme for BISU 7-year Programme. Retrieved from: https://stud.rtu.lv/rtu/pdf. Beijing Education Committee. (2018). Beijing Secondary Vocational School Graduation Certificate. Beijing International Studies University Archive. RTU (2013). Technical Translation Programme. Retrieved from: https://stud.rtu.lv/rtu/ spr_export/prog_pdf.83. Smith, I. K. E. (2013). Sociology of Globalization: Cultures, Economies, and Politics. Westview Press: Boulder, CO. Stavicka, A. (2015). Foreign Language Studies in the  Context of Higher Education Internationalization/ Doctoral Thesis/ University of Latvia, Latvia. Thøgersen, S. (2016). Chinese Students in Europe: Policies, Experiences and Prospects. European Review; 24(2): 297–305. Weeks, J. R., Fugate, D. L. (2012). The  Youth Bulge: Challenge or Opportunity? International Debate Education Association: New York. Xinhua. (2017). What is Gaokao? Why is it so important? New China. Retrieved from: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-06/07/c_136347192.htm. 645Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 TEAM-BASED LEARNING IN BUSINESS ENGLISH IN LATVIA AND EU Jelena Stepanova University of Latvia, Management College, Latvia ABSTRACT Business English is among of the  core subjects in business education. The  application of pertinent teaching-learning approach, such as team-based learning, allows students to engage into educational process and to demonstrate higher achievements in discipline acquisition. The  article reflects the  results of 4-year empirical research on team-based learning implementation in Business English in several higher institutions in Latvia, where participated 298 students, who mastered their skills and competences reaching an academic success through this approach. As well the  article investigates the  results of empirical research on team-based learning application in other European Union universities by Business English teachers from Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Italy, Spain, Greece and France. Team-based learning in teaching Business English proved to be a successful tool as it assisted to academic success in discipline, communication and understanding of the  business environment peculiarities through teamwork and critical thinking and majority of students gave positive feedback. The  research demonstrated that team-based learning gives more freedom and authorizes students to be more responsible for their own studies and knowledge as the process involves both individual work and teamwork and the contribution to the  team is significantly important there. Self-determination in studies leads to an academic success towards life-long competences and proves team-based learning approach to be a  useful and transformative tool for teaching Business English. However, in spite of this, the results of research demonstrated the team-bases learning approach is not familiar in EU universities, although other approaches are broadly applied. Keywords: team-based learning, Business English, EU universities, educators, transformative learning. Introduction There is a common feeling that “learning is a change process of societies and individuals” (Bourdieu, 1990), the  ability to change the  society and individuals is dependent on learning process properly arranged by the educator. The nowadays learning process even being smoothly adjusted to the needs of society in theory, in real educational practice is far from https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.47 Jelena Stepanova Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU 646 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ideal. The peculiarities of the modern adult learning are tightly connected with the  need to educate the  capable workers. Thus, it is obvious that learning should be carefully planned and implemented by the  educator to assist the  learners in their studies to lead them to their academic achievements and in training their skills for lifelong. The entire skills for lifelong learning include the  acquisition of higher level cognitive skills, ability to learn independently and be self-determined in learning in lifetime, ability to apply the course content in other various complex situations and on top of this – the ability to communicate and collaborate in teams, i.e. practical activities supported by group discussion form the  core of such pedagogical practices’’ (Merriam and Caffarela, 2007, p.262). Team-based learning (TBL) is such a concept in the 21st century pedagogy, which allows educators as to lead students to academic achievements as well as to train them in their skills for lifelong (Branney and Priego- Hernandez, 2018; Wu et al., 2018; Simonson, 2014; Betta, 2016; Liu and Beaujean, 2017; Balan et al., 2015; Huggins and Stamatel, 2015; Imazeki, 2015; Stein et.al, 2016; Bouw et al., 2015; Yoon, 2014). TBL incorporates various theories of adult learning, such as cooperative theory (May and Doob, 1937), theory of margin (McClusky, 1970), three dimensions of learning model (Illeris 2004), model of learning process (Jarvis, 2004), lifelong and self-directed learning (Tough, 1967), transformational learning (Mezirov, 1991) and pedagogies of engagement (Edgerton, 2001) (Nagaswami, 2011) and allows students to advance their knowledge and skills through accommodative or transcendental learning. Team-based learning is a  special approach to the  use of small groups that take both teaching and learning to a  whole new level of educational significance (Fink, 2002, p.4). When using properly TBL as a  constructivism didactic model, it drives 4 kinds of transformation: 1. It transforms small groups into teams; 2. It transforms a technique into a strategy; 3. It transforms the quality of students’ learning; 4. It transforms the joy of teaching (for teachers). There are two major distinctive features: (a) teams, instead of groups, and (b) strategy, instead of technique. TBL is a  particular instructional strategy that is designed to support the development of high-performance learning teams and to provide opportunities for these teams to engage in significant learning tasks (Fink, 2002, p.9). Being an instructional strategy, it provides a set of learning activities in a particular sequence, which work synergistically to create a high level of energy on the part of the students that can be applied to the  task of learning. When implemented properly, a good strategy can generate a very powerful level of educational energy. In order to use TBL, a course has to satisfy two conditions: 647Jelena Stepanova. Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU 1. The course should contain a significant body of information, it means the content of the course should be meaningful for the students (it emphasises constructivism background of TBL); 2. The main goal of the course – students have to learn how to apply this context by solving problems, answering questions, resolving issues successfully applying higher level cognitive skills in the new context. In order to build high performance learning teams in TBL, the teacher should arrange the following conditions: 1. Form the groups properly, i.e. groups should be diverse (in the frames of this research as in language level, as in other issues, as gender, race, ethnicity, previous knowledge, work experience, personal characteristics etc, what is defined on the first lesson via pre-course questionnaires); 2. Keep the groups together during the term to give a chance to become cohesive; 3. Constantly give challenging tasks with prompt and clear feedback (as it happens after Readiness Assurance Tests, which teachers gives students at the beginning of every new theme and application exercises). These conditions, which fit constructivist didactic model where the role of the teacher is mostly as a facilitator, allow students to learn the content, to learn how to use the  content, to learn about themselves and how to interact with each others on major tasks and what is more important how to keep on learning after the course is over (Fink, 2002, p.9), and what is particularly important for lifelong learning – it teaches the  self-directness and self-determination in studies. The aim of the  article is to reflect the  results of 4-year empirical research on team-based learning implementation in Business English in several higher institutions in Latvia, where participated 298 students, who mastered their skills and competences reaching an academic success through this approach and to investigate the results of empirical research on team-based learning application in other European Union universities by Business English teachers from Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Italy, Spain, Greece and France. Methodology The paper focuses on illustration of team-based learning implementation in Business English course in Latvia in 4 various institutions in the frames of PhD research. The  research was conducted from September 2015 till May 2019. 648 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The participants of the empirical research in Latvia were: • 127 first-year undergraduate students from the  Faculty of Management, Latvian Business College • 90 first and second-year students from the Faculty of Education and Faculty of Management, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy • 25 first-year undergraduate students from the  Faculty of Business Administration, Management College • 56 first-year undergraduate students from the Faculty of Education and Faculty of Business, Management and Economics, University of Latvia; Totally 298 participants, age was from 18 to 52 years old. The differentiation of participants by age is indicated in the Table 1. Table 1. Differentiation of participants by age < 20 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45 45–50 50–55 Not indicated 10% 37% 22% 10% 6% 4% 2 % 2 % 7% As it is seen from the  Table 1, the  majority of participants were presented in the  age gap from 20 to 30 years old, followed by age gaps from 30 to 40 years old. The differentiation of participants by English Language Proficiency level is given in Table 2. varies from Level A to C. Table 2. Differentiation of participants by English Language Proficiency level A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 Not indicated 12% 24% 36% 19% 5% 1% 3% It is clear, that THE majority of participants obtain A2-B1 level, A2 is not high enough to be able to study Business English easily. In order to ensure the  objectivity and validity of the  research data, the following materials and documents were analyzed: • 298 pre-course questionnaires to students from Latvia; • 277 post-course questionnaires to students from Latvia; • 8 questionnaires to educators (Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Italy, Spain, Greece and France); 649Jelena Stepanova. Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU • 20 in-depth interviews to students from Latvia; • 8 in-depth interviews to educators (Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Italy, Spain, Greece and France); • 9 focus groups (Latvia); • Lessons observations. In the groups taught in Latvia were as local students as the students, who represented different foreign countries – India, Lebanon, Brazil, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Uzbekistan, China, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine, Cameroun. Humanists (Pearson and Podeschi, 1999, Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1969, Knowls, 1980, Swanson and Holton, 2005, Leonard, 2002), constructivists (Merriam and Caffarela, 2007; Doll, 1993; Fosnot and Perry, 2005; von Glasersfeld, 1995; Arnold, 2005; Patzold, 2011) as well as social learning theories (Rehrl & Gruber, 2007; Belanger, 2011; Lave and Wenger, 1993; Michaelsen, 2014) were applied within the frame of this research. The hypothesis of the research – team-based learning is appropriate to achieve the desired quality of learning and learners’ achievements in skills for life-long learning. The  following criteria were formulated to measure the students’ achievements: 1. knowledge of Business English; 2. ability to work in a team; 3. acquisition of higher-level cognitive skills; 4. ability to learn independently and be self-determined in learning in lifetime; 5. ability to apply the course content in complex situations. Findings To investigate the  outcome of TBL application in teaching business English according to the  settled criteria, the  analysis of the  pre-course questionnaires, post-course questionnaires, focus groups and in-depth interview was made. The  pre-course questionnaires included 13 open questions, the post-course questionnaires included 15 Likert scale questions and five open questions. The  pre-course questionnaires were distributed at the  beginning of the  first lesson, the  post-course questionnaires were distributed at the  end of the  last lesson of the  course. All students simultaneously had to complete the  printed questionnaires and submit it simultaneously at the end of the lesson. After that some groups were asked to stay and discuss the post-course questionnaires. The focus groups were formed from the  students who participated in the  course and completed both questionnaires. They were sitting in the circle and one by one discussed the questions from the questionnaires, explaining and commenting on their answers. 650 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 The students who were taught by TBL in Latvia expressed their interest and satisfaction of this method  – ‘the method was great’, ‘I was very peaceful to come to your lessons’, ‘it is helpful’, ‘I find it interesting, something what we did not have before’, ‘it improves our knowledge’, ‘we were really into the working, discussions’, ‘we felt calm, positive, relaxed, excited a  little bit, because we were not get disappointed’, ‘it let me feel more free and open-minded’, ‘I felt interested’. They confirmed that TBL improved their ‘communication’, ‘listening by listening to each other’, ‘vocabulary by listening to peers and picking up new words’, ‘grammar by understanding the mistakes of others’. The analysis of the  outcome of the  TBL approach in Business English measuring the students’ achievements according to the established criteria is presented in the following graph (Figure 1). Figure 1. Analysis of TBL outcomes in Business English Analyzing the  results presented in Figure 1, it is possible to conclude that: • 85  % of students agree that the  lessons, where TBL approach was used facilitated to their BE knowledge improvement (reading, listening, speaking, writing); • 95% of students believe that the  lessons increased their ability to work in teams; • 90% confirm that the  lessons improved their higher-level cognitive skills; 651Jelena Stepanova. Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU • 88% of students agree that the  lessons facilitated their self- determination in learning. Thus, it is possible to sum up that by opinion of the students themselves their knowledge of Business English, ability to work in teams, acquisition of higher-level cognitive skills and development of self-determination in leaning in lifetime have progressed and improved in comparison with their expectations. They acknowledged that being taught by TBL they were able to master not only English knowledge but also acquired higher level cognitive skills, got an ability to learn independently and be self- determined in learning in lifetime, learned how to apply the course content in complex situations via communication and collaboration in teams. What proved team-based learning in teaching Business English to be a successful tool as it assisted to academic success in discipline, communication and understanding of the business environment peculiarities through teamwork and critical thinking. The research demonstrated that team-based learning gives more freedom and authorizes the students to be more responsible for their own studies and knowledge as the  process involves both individual work and teamwork and the  contribution to the  team is significantly important there. As this paper represents the  definite stage of PhD research, it also investigates the  results of empirical research on team-based learning application in other European Union universities by Business English teachers from Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Italy, Spain, Greece and France. • Germany:University of Wurzburg, Faculty of Business Management and Economics; • Austria:University of Vienna, Faculty of Business, Economics and Statistics; • Slovenia:University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Economics; • Italy: University of Florence, School of Economics and Management and University of Padua; • Greece: University of Cyprus, Language Centre; • France: University of Toulouse, School of Economics; • Spain: University of Gerona, Centre of Modern Languages. The choice of the Universities was random and it was connected with the willingness of the  respondents to meet and to contribute to the  re- search. The main purpose was to interview Business English language teachers to familiarize with their experience in teaching Business English. The  method of triangulation was applied through questionnaires, inter- views and observations. Within the research were investigated: students English level, language teaching experience and approaches in teaching English, knowledge about 652 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 team-based learning and its application, expected outcome and students’ achievements from their BE course. The Business English level of the  students in the  aforementioned Universities differs (see Figure 2), A2 (2 answers), B1 (3 answers), B2 (5 answers), C1 (4 answers), C2 (2 answers), thus, the majority of teachers teach groups with level B2-C1, which is high enough for team-based learning approach application. It shows that the average level in other EU countries is higher than in Latvia, which makes it easier to teach Business English and to apply as TBL as any other communicative approaches. Figure 2. English Language Proficiency level in EU Universities Having analyzed the  teachers’ language teaching experience and approaches in teaching English, as well as knowledge about team-based learning and its application, it is possible to make a conclusion that none of the  interviewed teachers heard about TBL approach and consequently did not use it in lessons. However 75% of them (6 out of 8) replied positively on the  question how they organize TBL, (‘‘in every class’’, ‘‘every other lesson’’, ‘‘yes, during the  semester I assign team-based assignment’’, ‘‘with a group and team activities’’, ‘‘yes, as often as possible with case studies/ simulations of meetings. At a  lower levels smaller teams (2–3, at higher levels in bigger (5–6)). These answers make it possible to conclude that they all suppose that TBL is an equivalent to group-based learning, and that they do not fully realize what TBL is and how it differs from group learning or collaborative learning. The  other two teachers who answered negatively, expressed their regret not using it and willingness to use it (‘‘not at all, I would be willing to try, though’’), as they are not aware of what it is, as answering the question: ‘‘How do you organize TBL?’’ the teacher mentioned that ‘‘it depends on the task and how many will form the teams. Sometimes, the  students can choose their own teammates, sometimes I assign or it is random’’. 653Jelena Stepanova. Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU Answering the  question: What is your opinion on the  TBL, it is also possible to draw a conclusion that there are more positive feedbacks of this approach (75%), as among the answers were ‘‘one excellent way to share and create skills for the students’’, ‘‘it is a positive experience for students and I use it in a  lot of classes but I have my doubts about using team- based exams’’, ‘‘very positive’’, ‘‘my students do simulations of meetings and presentations in teams/groups. Learning in teams has some downsides (time-consuming, free-riders, mother tongue discussions), but there are also some upsides (peer learning, flexibility, interest, motivation). On the other hand, in spite of the majority of the  teachers claim they apply team-based approach, answering the  question, which approach in teaching English they use, the answers differed, it means that teachers use all mentioned approaches, mixing and combining them in their course, what stands out, that 3 teachers acknowledge the  use of teacher-centred approach, however at the  same time they use student-centred approach too. Those teachers, who do not use teacher-centered approach, tend to combine different approach, creating the  eclectic methods, involving games, projects, problem solutions but anyway targeting the student, who is in the centre. See the chart below (Figure 3). Figure 3. Approaches Used in EU Universities in BE It is obvious that the most popular approach is student-centered, team- based and via case studies, however as it was mentioned earlier TBL approach is rather group-based. 654 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Among the  achievements, which teachers expect from their students were indicated 12 skills, the main are represented in the chart (Figure 4). Figure 4. Expected Achievements in BE in EU Universities Analyzing the  expected achievements in Latvia (by students) and in EU universities (by teachers), it is possible to conclude that the  main achievements are similar – knowledge of Business English, ability to work in a  team, acquisition of higher-level cognitive skills, ability to learn independently and be self-determined in learning in lifetime. However the  priorities differ insignificantly, for instance, presentation skills (absolutely all teachers mentioned ‘’presentation skills’’ – 8 out of 8) which in Latvia are not prioritised at all in EU Universities are on the first place, also in other EU Universities teachers focus more on business vocabulary, on skills how to conduct the negotiation and chair the meetings. It means that all the aforementioned skills are considered by the teachers as valuable and reasonable to pay attention at the  lessons, however with priority to business area (business vocabulary, presentations, negotiations, meetings). It is worth mentioning that some teachers added their own variants of achievements, which they expect: • ‘‘To succeed at a job interview; to use politeness when communicate in English’’ (Cyprus) • ‘‘ability to assess own progress, ability of accept own learning path, feeling confidence in speaking’’ (Girona) • ‘‘foreign language communicative competences’’ (Ljubljana) • ‘‘intercultural skills, soft skills’’ (Wurzbourg) 655Jelena Stepanova. Team-Based Learning in Business English in Latvia and EU These additional skills provides deeper into understanding what are the  real expectations from Business English course in other EU countries. Also, it emphasises more hard-skills development approach, rather than soft skills. Nevertheless, in general expected achievement all teachers are unanimous. Trying to figure out more about the  realizaton by EU teachers TBL approach, the  following question was asked: How do you organize TBL? The  answers again emphasized that the  teachers perceive TBL as a  group work: ‘‘it depends on the  aims of the  activity, some times put students together with very different experiences, other time with similar experiences’’, ‘‘ in groups of 4 students’’, ‘‘for debates, presentations, for researching topics – seminar with whole group’’, ‘‘with good instructions, help in the preparation stage, time to prepare at home and do some research individually, by providing feedback before/during/after the  activity, providing students with safe environment for communicating and learning, organizing work in several teams at the same time to enable the potential experiential learning and self-evaluation’’. It demonstrates that in general group learning or collaborative learning prevails in the  Business English classes in EU universities. Conclusions Team-based learning approach is a  useful and transformative tool for teaching Business English. However, in spite of its very positive application in institutions of Latvia, this method is not familiar to other European Business English Language teachers. Moreover, completely all teachers, who participated in the  research, substitute the  notions collaborative learning/group learning with team-based learning. The reasons could be the following: • lack of information about TBL among language teachers; • lack of information about TBL in Europe in general. Besides, it was possible to notice, that: • teachers of BE gradually have been changing their teaching approach from teacher-centered to student-centered’ • -even if the  level of English in EU universities allows to apply different methods, such as TBL including; • -BE teachers focus mostly on preparation for real life situations. 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DOI 10.1007/ s40670-014-0024-3. 658 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 APPROACHES TO EMBEDDING GLOBAL DIMENSION IN ADULT EDUCATION CURRICULUM BY THE CASE STUDY OF THE HOSPITALITY BUSINESS TOOLKIT Olga Zvereva Hotel School Hotel Management College, Latvia ABSTRACT The purpose – The paper aims to present a conceptual overview of the approaches to embed Global Dimension in Adult Education Curriculum to learn and share global practices with adult educators and promote Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship (ESDGC) for achieving the  Sustainable Development Goals’ targets including SDG4 Quality Education and overall enhancing education. The theoretical framework – Global Dimension including the  concepts of Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship is initially related to the  subject-oriented approach, the  principles of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) as well as ESDGC including SDGs are based on the  principles of the  competences leading to competencies that point at competency-based and problem-based approaches, but the  qualification competences frame to curriculum-based approach. This overview provides a summary of the approaches to embed Global Dimension in adult education curriculum with discussion of the benefits, applicability and synthesis of various approaches as well as practical case framework by the example of the Hospitality Business Toolkit, a course designed by Pearson, the Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC). The research/ study design  – The  framework is developed from a  review of literature on the  principles, approaches and global practices of embedding Global Dimension, ESD, ESDGC in the curriculum, interrelated with the qualification learning outcomes. The methods or instruments – The grounded theory, an exploratory method, was used for identification and conceptualization of the patterns to structure findings by the process of comparison of different approaches and practices. A case study was designed to demonstrate a practical application of optional embedding Global Dimension in the course design. The description of the  experience  – The  case illustrates the  initially built-in concepts of Global Dimension by Pearson, BTEC by integrated legal, ethical and social, financial, human resource and department coordination aspects with additional optionally embedded sustainability topics in the course design. The findings – The  unity between the  content, form and context with a  synthesis of approaches to embed Global Dimension, ESD, ESDGC in the  curriculum is of utmost importance. Key words: Global Dimension, Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship (ESDGC), embedding, approaches, learning challenges, hospitality. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.48 Olga Zvereva Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... 659Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... Introduction The paper provides a  theoretical review and practical case study of the  approaches to embed Global Dimension in the  Pearson BTEC Unit the Hospitality Business Toolkit with analysis of the related aspects linked to ESD, ESDGC, the hospitality business manager competences leading to competencies and entrepreneurship skills. According to McGough, Hunt,, (2012, p.  8), University of London, the global dimension connects the local, national and global in a way that people are aware of how their actions have implications for others across the globe. The term the global dimension can be used alongside other terms such as global learning, development education and global citizenship education (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p. 8). Global Education Guidelines Concepts and Methodologies on GE for Educators and Policy Makers by GEGWG, the  North-South Centre (NSC) of the  Council of Europe (2012, p.  10) mention Global Education as an education perspective which arises from the fact that contemporary people live and interact in an increasingly globalised world. Europe-wide Global Education Congress (2002, p.  2) defines GE as education that opens people’s eyes and minds to the  realities of the  world, and awakens them to bring about a  world of greater justice, equity and human rights for all, where the GEGWG (2012, p. 6) enriches the explanation of the definition by the word ‘holistic education’. Global Education by the Maastricht Global Education Declaration (2002, p.   2) is understood to encompass Development Education, Human Rights Education, Education for Sustainability, Education for Peace and Conflict Prevention and Intercultural Education; being the  global dimensions of Education for Citizenship. In addition, GEGWG (2012, p. 20) admits that GE enables people to develop the  knowledge, skills, values and attitudes needed for securing a  just, sustainable world in which everyone has the right to fulfil his/her potential. Bourn (2012) mentions that the concept of the Global Dimension was constructed in 2000 by development education organisations in partnership with the Labour government as a mechanism for taking forward many of the  themes behind development education practice through a  series of concepts such as sustainable development, conflict resolution, values and perspectives, interdependence. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2008, p.  2) states that ‘the GD explores what connects us to the  rest of the  world. It enables learners to engage with complex global issues and explore the  links between their own lives and people, places and issues throughout the  world. The  GD can relate to both developing and developed countries, including countries in Europe. It helps learners to 660 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 imagine different futures and the role they can play in creating a fair and sustainable world.’ Sustainable Development Goal 4 Quality Education (SDG4) of the  17  SDGs is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (United Nations, 2015, “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”). The  target 4.4 is ‘By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship’. The  target 4.7 is ‘By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the  knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through ESD and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development’. The indicator to measure the  target 4.7 is 4.7.1 the  extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) ESD, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all levels in: (a) national education policies, (b) curricula, (c) teacher education and (d) student assessment (United Nations, 2015, “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”). Research problem has been figured out that GD including the concepts of Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship is initially related to the  subject-oriented approach, the  principles of ESD as well as ESDGC including SDGs are based on the  principles of the  competences leading to competencies that point at competency-based and problem-based approaches, but the  qualification competences frame to curriculum-based approach. The identified problem is the absence of clarity and framework for approach application to embed GD in Adult Education Curriculum with relation to Learning Outcomes and Qualifications. Research background can be found in co-authored published article (2017) ‘Key Competencies of Managerial Level Employees for Sustainability in Hospitality Business’ and a conducted research and designed intellectual outputs on approaches to embed ESDGC in adult education for EU Erasmus Plus KA2 ESDGC Project. The updated Pearson BTEC Hospitality Management Programme 2018 was introduced and implemented instead of Programme 2010. The Aim of the  Research The  paper aims to present a  conceptual overview of the approaches to embed Global Dimension in Adult Education Curriculum to learn and share global practices with adult educators and promote ESDGC for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals’ (SDGs’) targets including SDG4 Quality Education and overall enhancing education. Research Function and Application This overview provides a summary of the  approaches to embed GD in adult education curriculum with 661Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... discussion of the benefits, applicability and synthesis of various approaches as well as practical case framework by the  example of the  Hospitality Business Toolkit. Research Objectives are: to establish approach framework for embedding GD in Adult Learning Curriculum; to illustrate an approaches and techniques how to embed GD in Adult Curriculum by case design and analysis; to develop a  proposal of methods and topics to embed GD in Adult Learning Curriculum. Research Object is the  approaches to embed GD in Adult Learning Curriculum. Research Subject is the ways to select and apply approaches to embed GD in Adult Learning Curriculum to achieve Sustainable Development Goals including SDG4 Quality Education and enhance overall education. Theoretical Framework The framework is developed from a review of literature on the principles, approaches and global practices of embedding GD, GE, ESD, ESDGC in the curriculum, interrelated with the qualification learning outcomes. Relation of Global Education, Global Dimension, ESD and ESDGC The theoretical definitions and relation of Global Education, Global Dimension, ESD and ESDGC are reviewed to clarify the relevant approaches. 0GEGWG (2012, p. 10) states it is ‘crucial for education to give learners the  opportunity and competences to reflect and share their own point of view and role within a  global, interconnected society, as well as to understand and discuss complex relationships of common social, ecological, political and economic issues, so as to derive new ways of thinking and action. At the  same time GEGWG (2012, p.  10) defines GE as approach itself and ascertains that ‘GE should not be presented as an approach that we may all accept uncritically, since we already know there are dilemmas, tensions, doubts and different perceptions in an education process when dealing with global issues’. The Global Education Guidelines Working Group (GEGWG, 2012, p. 17) delineates that ‘GE is a new approach which aims at enabling learners to understand world issues while empowering them with knowledge, skills, values and attitudes desirable for world citizens to face global problems. The  global challenges and the  theoretical pattern of GE are separated into a system of spatial, objective/issues, temporal, and social dimensions (Lehner, Wurzenberger, 2013, p. 361). Mannion et al (2011, p. 448) discuss the concept by Davies, Evans, and Reid (2005), ‘the Environmental Education (EE), Development Education 662 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 (DE) and Citizenship Education (CE) lineages potentially converging on a  nodal point in their respective discourses’ illustrated as Education for Global Citizenship. By Mannion et al (2011, p.  448), EE includes Nature Studies, Global Learning, ESD, the  route of DE involves Third World Studies, Peace Education, Global Education, ESD, but CE emerge as Civic Studies, Entrepreneurial Education, International Education. Global Dimension, GE, ESD, ESDGC are interrelated, the  approaches to ESD are traceable with the  focus on GD. Pedagogical approaches and principles that have been analysed by UE4SD (2014, p. 57) within national ESD strategies in the  European countries include whole-of-institution, strategic/systemic, competence/skills-based, and future thinking. ESD principles by UE4SD (2014, p.  57) are critical/creative thinking, action learning, systemic thinking, participation/ partnerships. GEGWG (2012, p.  20) determines that ‘GE is not just concerned with different perspectives on globalised themes and what you teach and learn about them. It is also concerned about how you teach and learn and the contextual conditions in which you teach and learn. In fact there is a  necessary unity between the  content, form and context in which the learning process takes place.’ ‘Core values allow educators to clarify the  basic principles of the  learning process, guiding them in choosing the  contents, identifying and using sources of information, designing teaching-learning-evaluating strategies and developing fields of practical intervention for the  learner. The ultimate purpose of GE is to develop values, based on knowledge of global issues and relevant skills in order to build attitudes for responsible global citizenship at individual and collective level’ (GEGWG, 2012, p.  24). The  values include self-esteem, self-confidence, self-respect and respect for others, social responsibility, environmental responsibility, open- mindedness, visionary attitudes, proactive and participatory community membership, and solidarity (GEGWG, 2012, p. 24). According to the  Department for International Development (DFID), (2005, p.  7) the  global dimension contributes to the  development of key skills including communication, cross-cultural communication, working with others, and an awareness of diverse perspectives on issues. It contributes to thinking skills by encouraging pupils to analyse, evaluate, question assumptions; and creatively identify ways to achieve positive change. Development Education Association (2000, p. 3) has outlined the eight principles of GD. The  Department for International Development (2005, p.  20), specify that these concepts provide a  conceptual framework for thinking about and building them into the  curriculum: global citizenship, conflict resolution, social justice, values and perceptions, sustainable development, interdependence, human rights, diversity. The  description of the  principles 663Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... and the  skills related are discussed in the  case study of the  proposal of embedding GD in the Hospitality Business Toolkit. A Conceptual Overview of the Approaches to Embed Global Dimension in Adult Education Curriculum As there is no united framework for embedding GD in adult curriculum, the  concepts of embedding, infusion, mainstreaming related to GE, GD, ESD and ESDGC are reviewed as interrelated and integrated. ‘While the  term ‘mainstreaming’, as in the  global indicator of SDG Target  4.7, is commonly used to refer to a  process of incorporating or including ESD in different aspects of education systems, we use ‘embedding’ intentionally to refer to a particular strategy for mainstreaming’ (UNESCO MGIEP, 2017, p. 18). UNESCO MGIEP (2017, p.  18) refer to Wals (2009, p.  49) that mainstreaming ESD into formal education involves different approaches, ranging from ‘conventional’ ones that conform to existing school systems and structures to ‘innovative’ ones where there is a  radical force to transform existing institutional structures. ‘Ideally, mainstreaming ESD should happen within a  ‘whole-school’ approach, with ESD values and principles being reflected in the ethos and mission of the school and being central to the  professional development of its teachers (UNESCO MGIEP, 2017, p. 18). The metaphor of embedding describes the  process of integrating a desirable element deeply into a system. Embedding is a strategy that opens up possibilities for transforming the  education system from within by paving a way to an interdisciplinary curriculum, issue-based learning and whole-school approaches (UNESCO MGIEP, 2017, p. 18). The metaphor of infusion, on the  other hand, describes the  process of a  desirable essence permeating and transforming the  milieu in which the system operates. Infusion is a strategy for ESD integration that is deeper than embedding and is an ultimate solution (UNESCO MGIEP, 2017, p. 18). Embedding, therefore, strategically promotes double-purpose learning, where students acquire subject knowledge and skills and, at the same time, learn how to contribute to a  sustainable transformation of society  – they learn to live together with a deep respect for the environment and dignity for all (UNESCO MGIEP, 2017, p. 19). One of the most important methodological approaches for understanding globalised themes is to track the  same problems and issues at all these levels in order to constantly investigate the relationship between micro and macro context (The GE Guidelines Working Group, 2012, p. 21). ‘A holistic approach seeks to understand direct and indirect relationships between forms of power, violence and injustice at all levels, as well as 664 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 the  values, practices and necessary conditions needed to overcome them’ (GEGWG, 2012, p.  30). Lehner, Wurzenberger (2013) state that ‘GE provides holistic learning strategies based on the challenges of globalisation and a global society. Dumitru (2017, p.  896) demonstrated how ESD principles and competencies can be integrated within its established curricular architecture by means of the  method of infusion. The  main focus of infusion or the embedding approach referring to Collins et al (1989), Ennis (1989), Perkins and Salmon (1989) is to include new competencies into an existing program and into existing subject matter, making the principles of the new corpus of knowledge explicit to the students. There are two other concurrent approaches, namely: (1) one which consists of adding a  new course separately from other subject matters; the  new course containing the new knowledge (the stand-alone approach); and (2) immersing the new knowledge into the  existing subject matters, without making explicit to the students the principles and newness of the knowledge corpus (Dumitru, 2017, p. 896). UE4SD (2014, p.  17) illustrates a  comparative overview of ESD approaches and principles that are promoted in national strategies. The  analysis is based on the  three ESD approaches: competence/skill- based, strategic/systemic, whole-of-institution. Estonia, Ireland and Latvia are using only strategic/systemic approach, Lithuania and Hungary are using only competence/skill-based approach, United Kingdom and Greece are using the  two approaches  – whole-of-institution and competence/ skill-based, but Cyprus use only whole-of-institution. Italy, Portugal and Spain are using whole-of-institution and strategic-systemic approaches. GEGWG (2012, pp. 30–31) determine the three methodological approaches to GE including cooperative-based learning, problem-based learning and dialogue-based learning. The micro-macro approach mentioned by GEGWG (2012, p.  33) has the  three forms. The  first form is ‘from local to global’, the  second form is ‘from personal to collective’, and the  third form is ‘from emotional to rational’. Interdisciplinary approach discussed by GEGWG (2012, p.  33) suggests that ‘global issues can be developed through any subject of the curricula, formal or non-formal’. Sustainability and Environmental Education (SEEd, 2016) outlines Whole School or Whole Institution Approach, also called Whole System Approach (Sustainability and Education Academy, SEDA, 2016), which can be of the two categories: whole school engagement on a topic or practice and whole school approaches categorised by an ethos/vision and or a framework (Finalyson, 2016). 665Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... The recommended practices for GE by GEGWG (2012, p.  39) is the  project method, the  world-links method, international school partnerships, debate competitions, participative arts, community learning, learning to live together by, and sports. Zhang et al (2016, p. 375) examined and demonstrated a Comparative Perspective of Competency-Oriented Diversity Education by contrasting the  two approaches such as mainstream diversity education approach and competency-oriented diversity education approach to culturally and linguisti- cally diverse international students (CLDI students). The  competency- oriented diversity education approach ensures both inclusion and academic success, targets both nonmainstream domestic students and CLDI students, sets sustainability as motive: the  changing needs and expectations of students with curriculum both informal and formal, and systematic curriculum transformation. The  recommended pedagogy is identity- sensitive, particularism (different keys for different locks; individualized teaching); proactive learning relationship, and such learning outcomes as diversity awareness; mind-set shifts; host-country language proficiency; cross-cultural knowledge, skills, and abilities Zhang et al (2016, p.  375). Zhang et al (2016, p.  376) state that OECD business schools may need to reform the  traditional standardized course structure and explore the  possibility of designing courses specifically to address CLDI students’ special educational needs. By Sweitzer (2019), the  subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it should be studied. Subject-centred curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline (Sweitzer, 2019, ‘Curriculum Design’). ‘Learner-centred pedagogy sees students as autonomous learners and emphasizes the  active development of knowledge rather than its mere transfer and/or passive learning experiences. Learner-centred approaches require learners to reflect on their own knowledge and learning processes in order to manage and monitor them. Learner-centred approaches change the role of an educator to one of being a facilitator of learning processes’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 55 with reference to Barth, 2015). In action-oriented learning, action-oriented approach, learners engage in action and reflect on their experiences in terms of the  intended learning process and personal development. The  experience might come from a project (in-service learning), an internship, the facilitation of a workshop, the  implementation of a  campaign, etc. Action-learning refers to Kolb’s theory of the experiential learning cycle with the following stages including 1) having a  concrete experience, 2) observing and reflecting, 3) forming abstract concepts for generalization and 4) applying them in new situations’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 55 referring to Kolb, 1984). 666 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 ‘Action-learning increases knowledge acquisition, competency development and values clarification by linking abstract concepts to personal experience and the  learner’s life. The  role of the  educator is to create a  learning environment that prompts learners’ experiences and reflexive thought processes’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 55). ‘Problem-centered curriculum design, problem-centred approach, is also a  form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life issues, which help them develop skills that are transferable to the  real world’ (Schweitzer, 2019, ‘Curriculum Design’). UNESCO (2009, p.  4), mentions competency-based approach for ESD. ‘A global vision of curriculum should include learning outcomes to achieve (exit profiles), pedagogical and instructional strategies linked to teaching and learning, teaching materials for teachers and students, the discipline’s contents, evaluation of learning outcomes and achievements, and curriculum management.’ A competency-based approach can be a valid alternative to the notion of a curriculum as a plan of studies, providing an innovative way of conceiving and organizing the curricular structure and objectives, discipline-contents, to develop people who are competent as autonomous, critical and assertive citizens (UNESCO, 2009, p. 4). An interdisciplinary approach engages students meaningfully in sustainability issues by allowing them to analyze a complex topic in more than one subject (UNESCO MGIEP, 2017, p. 24). UNESCO (2017, p. 55) mentions transformative learning, transformative learning approach, which can best be defined by its aims and principles, rather than by any concrete teaching or learning strategy (UNESCO, 2017, p. 55). Entrepreneurial Education Approach Based on the Hospitality Business Toolkit competences set up by BTEC and on the  Sustainable Development Goal 4 and its target 4.4 ‘By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship’ (United Nations, 2015, “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”), the  approaches to teaching and learning entrepreneurship are reviewed. Lackéus (2015, p. 9) states being entrepreneurial can mean many things to many people, and discusses that a  common conception according to Gartner (1990), that entrepreneurship is about entrepreneurial individuals creating innovative organizations that grow and create value, either for 667Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... the  purpose of profit or no, entrepreneurship does not have to include the creation of new organizations, it can also occur in existing organizations (Shane and Venkataraman, 2007). A learning-by-doing approach as fosters habits of learning by default through its deep learning component. It also promotes initiative and responsibility, since it encourages people to take initiative to inter-action of the kind that leads to meaningful outcomes, sometimes even valuable to a wider community (i.e. taking responsibility) (Lackéus, 2015, p. 9). Lackéus (2015, p.  30) presents the  three models from entrepreneurial domain such as Effectuation (Read et al., 2011), Business Model Canvas (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010), Customer development /Lean Startup (Blank and Dorf, 2012). In addition, the  three other tools from other domains are reviewed such as Appreciative Inquiry (Bushe and Kassam, 2005), Service-learning (Kenworthy-U’Ren et al., 2006) and Design thinking (Dunne and Martin, 2006). All six models are contrasted in such aspects as value creation, interaction with outside world, team work and action. Lackéus (2015, p.  10) referring to Fayolle and Gailly (2008) stresses that the varying definitions of entrepreneurship and resulting variations in pedagogical approaches have made it difficult to give teachers firm advice on how to approach entrepreneurial education. Discussion around entrepreneurial education contrasts between a “tradi- tional” and an “entrepreneurial” way of teaching. Positivism is put versus interpretivism, traditional education versus progressive/constructivist edu- cation, and traditional education versus entrepreneurial education, scientif- ic method versus entrepreneurial method as contrasted by Lackéus (2015, p. 15). Descriptions of traditional education are ‘simplicity, individual, con- tent, detached, theory’, but diverged attributes of entrepreneurial educa- tion are ‘complexity, social, content, process, attached, practice’ (Lackéus, 2015, p. 15). The features explain why entrepreneurial education can trigger much higher levels of motivation, experienced relevancy, engagement and deep learning than can other pedagogical approaches (Lackéus, 2015, p.  15, referring to Lackéus, 2013). Lackéus (2015, p.  15) specifies major focus of Entrepreneurial Education on ‘problems, opportunities, authenticity, artifact creation, iterative experimentation, real world (interaction), value creation to external stakeholders, team-work, work across extended periods of time, newness / innovativeness, risk of failure’. Only problems and authenticity are the  focus in compared, ‘often stated to be similar’ approaches: Entrepreneurial Education, problem-based learning, project-based learning, service learning. Team-work focus appears in problem-based and project- based learning, artefact creation in project-based learning, work across 668 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 extended period of time in project-based and service learning, additionally service learning involves real world (interaction), value creation to external stakeholders (Lackéus, 2015, p. 15). ‘Teachers should give their students assignments to create value (preferably innovative) to external stakeholders based on problems and/ or opportunities the  students identify through an iterative process they own themselves and take full responsibility for.’ To alleviate the  levels of difficulty and uncertainty such an assignment can result in, a  team-work approach should be applied giving the students access to increased creative ability and peer learning opportunities. Lackéus (2015, p.  27) outlines the relation between educational assignments involving creation, triggered activities / events including ‘interaction with outside world, uncertainty and ambiguity in learning environment, teamwork environment, overcoming competency gaps, presenting in front of others’, developed entrepreneurial competencies as ‘increased self-efficacy, increased uncertainty and ambiguity tolerance, increased self-insight, formation of entrepreneurial identity, increased marketing skills, and others’ Assessment in entrepreneurial education Lackéus (2014, p.  22), contrasted current assessment focus in entrepreneurial education based on Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), case studies and entrepreneurial outcomes to a  future complementing assessment focus proposed to be built on Experience Sampling Method (ESM). TBS is proposed for assessment of thoughts before and immediately after education, case studies as assessment immediately after and years/ decades after education, ESM for thoughts, actions and emotions during education, entrepreneurial outcomes to assess actions years / decades after education (Lackéus, 2014, p. 22). The CSCT Project Group (2008, p.  189) referring to de Haan (2006) mentions that ESD specifically involves the  acquisition of a  number of sub competencies subsumed under the  term ‘Gestaltungskompetenz’, which can be translated as ‘shaping competence’. ‘Gestaltungskompetenz’ means “having the  skills, competencies and knowledge to enact changes in economic, ecological and social behaviour without such changes always being merely a  reaction to pre-existing problems.” Thus, the  concept of ‘Gestaltungskompetenz’ is particularly characterised by such key competencies as enable a  forward-looking and selfdependent active involvement in the shaping of sustainable development. For the  construction of the  study programme the  following methods are recommended by CSCT Project Group (2008, pp. 181–183): blended learning, selection of a problem field relevant to society, systematic analysis using the  syndrome approach, substantiation with a  case study, scenario 669Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... development, project proposals, synthesis of the  development paths. All these six stages are delineated in the  systematic approach of the  study programme (The CSCT Project Group, 2008, p. 183). UNESCO (2017, p. 7) states what ESD requires is ‘a shift from teaching to learning. It asks for an action-oriented, transformative pedagogy, which sup- ports self-directed learning, participation and collaboration, problem-orien- tation, inter- and transdisciplinarity and the linking of formal and informal learning. Only such pedagogical approaches make possible the development of the  key competencies needed for promoting sustainable development.’ GE, GD, ESD, ESDGC can be embedded in course description, context, topics and subtopics, teaching and learning materials, delivery methods, activities; the  role of the  teacher, learning environment, assessment, feedback and self-reflection. The concepts of approaches to embed GD and related meanings as GE, ESD, ESDGC have been demonstrated. The  list of approaches varies on the basis of the purpose of embedding considering the discussed benefits and drawbacks. Learning Challenges The four learning challenges by Lehner, Wurzenberger (2013, p. 361), referring to Lang-Wojtasik (2013) and approaches from Selby and Rathenow (2006), are spatial, objective/issues, temporal, social. Fook, Sidhu (2015, p. 608–610) have delineated the following learning challenges by students in higher education: cognitive challenge, becoming an active learner, coping with reading materials, language problem, in struc- tional problem, time management, assignment burdens, culture difference. Research Methods The grounded theory, an exploratory method, was used for identification and conceptualization of the patterns to structure findings by the process of comparison of different approaches and practices in including qualitative and quantitative analyses. A  case study was designed to demonstrate a practical application of optional embedding GD in the course design. Research Question is in what ways GD can be embedded in Adult Curriculum to achieve Sustainable Development Goals’ targets including SD4 Quality Education and overall enhancing education. The Case Study ‘Embedding Global Dimension in the Hospitality Business Toolkit’ The case provides practical examples on the basis of grounded theory of embedding Global Dimension, ESD, ESDGC in the Unit ‘The Hospitality 670 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Business Toolkit” by HOTEL SCHOOL Hotel Management College, Riga, Latvia. The  Unit ‘The Hospitality Business Toolkit’ is one of the  units of the  Hospitality Management Programme 2018, BTEC, Higher National Diploma, UK, Level 5, credit value 15, designed by Pearson, the Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC). The course is core, mandatory group, A. (Pearson BTEC, 2017, p. 102), teaching and learning language is English. According to Pearson BTEC (2017, p. 11), ‘students need both relevant qualifications and employability skills to enhance their career prospects and contribute to their personal development. Where employability skills are referred to in this specification, this generally refers to skills in five main categories: cognitive and problem-solving skills, intra-personal skills, interpersonal skills, commercial skills, business skills in addition with academic study skills (Pearson BTEC, 2017, p. 12). The unit ‘the Hospitality Business Toolkit’ includes the  learning outcomes related to the  Finance in the  Hospitality industry, Law for Licensed Premises, and Human Resource Management and coordination of the departments related to Operational Management (Pearson BTEC, 2017, pp. 102–108). By contrasting the  eight principles of Global Dimension and the  learning outcomes, the  included topics in the  unit by BTEC Pearson (2017, p.  102–108), the  embedding of GD principles has been evidenced in the course. The GD principle ‘global citizenship’, described as gaining the knowledge, skills and understanding of concepts and institutions necessary to become informed, active, responsible citizens (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p.  5–6), is embedded in learning outcome LO3 ‘illustrate the  potential impact of legal and ethical considerations on a hospitality business’ with assessment criteria ‘critically reflect on the potential impacts of regulations, legislation and ethical principles upon decision-making in a hospitality organisation, providing specific examples (BTEC Pearson, 2017, pp. 102–108). The GD principles ‘conflict resolution’, ‘social justice’, ‘human rights’, ‘diversity’ (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p.  5–6), are embedded in LO3 and LO2 ‘assess how to manage the Human Resources life cycle within the context of HR strategy’ with assessment criteria ‘make valid judgements and recommendations on how HR processes and documents can be improved for effective talent planning throughout the HR life cycle’ for Distinction level. The GD principle ‘values and perceptions’, explained as ‘developing a critical evaluation of representations of global issues and an appreciation of the  effect these have on people’s attitudes and values’ (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p.  5–6) can be found in LO1, LO2, LO3 and LO4, where LO1 is ‘investigate how to manage finance and record transactions to 671Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... minimise costs responsibly within the  hospitality sector’, but LO4 is ‘explain the  importance of coordinating and integrating various functions of departments within the  hospitality sector’ with assessment criteria ‘critically analyse different methods of communication, coordination and monitoring within a specific department of a hospitality organisation and make justified recommendations’ (Pearson BTEC, 2017, pp. 102–108). The GD principle ‘interdependence’, understanding how people, places, economies and environments are all inextricably interrelated, and that choices and events have repercussions on a global scale and the principle ‘sustainable development’, (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p. 5–6) are traced to all four learning outcomes. The GD skills, delineated by McGough, Hunt (2012, p. 8), are evinced as embedded in the Hospitality Business Toolkit learning content and outcomes including ‘understanding that people have different values, attitudes and perceptions, understanding the  importance and value of human rights, developing multiple perspectives and new ways of seeing events, issues, problems and opinions, questioning and challenging assumptions and perceptions, understanding the  power of the  media in influencing perceptions, choices and lifestyles, understanding that the  values people hold shape their actions, using different issues, events and problems to explore children and young people’s own values and perceptions as well as those of others’ (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p. 5–6). As alternative pattern, GD Principle ‘Sustainable Development’ Skills traced to the  Hospitality Business Toolkit Selective Content of the  Unit Topics including ‘recognising that some of the earth’s resources are finite and therefore must be used responsibly by each of us’ (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p.  5–6): control of resource allocation: stock taking, inventory costings, systems of waste management, flagging cost control issues and progress in terms of targets and expectations (Pearson BTEC, 2017, pp. 102–108). Another example of the  embedded skills to obtain in the  course ‘considering probable and preferable futures and how to achieve the  latter’ (McGough, Hunt, 2012, p.  5–6) related to the  topics such as use of budgets for planning and control: income streams, fixed costs and variable costs, methods of forecasting to set realistic profit margin targets, pricing strategies and setting realistic targets; performance management, training and development, succession planning and maintaining employee motivation to retain staff (Pearson BTEC, 2017, pp. 102–108). Adjoining the options of embedding GD, SD, ESDGC are explained with respect to the  ‘following recommended actions to ensure effective educa- tion and training with regard to green economies and green societies as integrate sustainable development into education and training at all levels, 672 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 and cultivate key competencies required to facilitate the transition to sus- tainability, such as entrepreneurship and risk management skills in order to 1) enhance education for entrepreneurship skills to promote the launch of new enterprises and self-employment directly and indirectly related to the green economy, 2) provide entrepreneurship training and business coaching for young people and adults to start up green businesses in conjunction with microfinance projects in developing countries (UNESCO, 2012, pp. 6–7). The assignment set up for the  unit include the  four separate task submissions with different deadlines according to the  delivered sessions, materials and time necessary to perfume the tasks. The first assignment part is development of the Risk Management Plan, the  report and presentation, group work up to 5 persons. The  learners (described in Investigation Results) carry out a detailed risk assessment for one type of licensed premises. In addition, the students reflect on such aspects as International Environmental Standards and its benefits, certification, environmental management programs, ISO, EMAS, environmental quality signs, eco labels, sustainable business ethics, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) (Zvereva, 2019, ‘Assignment’). The second assignment part is Financial Business Plan of the  value added business idea to a new hospitality business or an existing hospitality business including the three financial scenarios of the business idea budget, trial balance, financial analysis with analysis of energy consumption and proposal for optimization (Zvereva, 2019, ‘Assignment’). The third part of the assignment is participation in the X-Culture Global Collaboration Course (North Carolina, the U.S.) involving theoretical training and two months of practical experience as a member of a Global Virtual Team. The teams develop a high-quality business plan for a multinational company working alongside over 5,000 students from 110–150 universities in over 40 countries on 6 continents. The  students get random allocation on teams after passing the  pre-readiness test to get acquainted with the instructions, communicate to the team members from different countries to develop a business proposal according to set framework and milestones (X-Culture Project, 2019, www.x-culture.org). The forth part of the  assignment is the  individual task, preparing a  Human Resource Management Plan or HR Training Programme for a specific hospitality job with analysis and recommendations of corporate governance structure, HR system, ethics in the  hospitality business company, with sustainability focus (Zvereva, 2019, ‘Assignment’). The optional embedding is via adaptation of the  course title focusing on the  sustainability with change to the  Sustainable Hospitality Business Toolkit, the  definition of the  sustainable hospitality will be centred for the content. The length of the course also can be extended at programme 673Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... technical possibilities and necessity in case of adding the additional content depending on the standards. The learning outcome is supplemented by the  word ‘sustainable’ attached to the HR strategy, that changes the meaning and definitions to be delivered – regard managing the Human Resources (HR) life cycle within the  context of sustainable HR strategy, where the  students learn not just the  HR strategy, but specifically sustainable HR strategy in addition or instead by choice of the option. In order to embed the GD, ESD, ESDGC content in the course, the listed examples of the topics can be added: sustainable management, sustainability performance indicators (SPIs) or sustainable development indicators, Sustainable Finance, activities of sustainable finance, benefits of organizing for sustainability to the bottom line, Sustainability Accounting Standards, Sustainability Accounting Standards (Zvereva, 2019, ‘Assignment’). The topic Energy can be embedded in the unit as the part of the theme Financial Management and Recording Transactions to Minimize Costs Responsibly within the  Hospitality Sector via subtopics sustainable budgeting and control of resource allocation with example how to use GRI Indicators to measure company performance in energy consumption, resource control and saving within the  Environmental Aspect by Energy and to build company performance analysis and budgeting on the  GRI Indicator (GSSB, 2016, “Global Reporting Indicators”). It is proposed to apply ESD principles in development of the design of the  materials: vertical layout, neutral colours, and most friendly fonts to reading thus embedding health topic into design. Learning environment choice related to Sustainable Hospitality Business can be a site, where SD principles should be implemented as soon as possible or a  site, where SD principles have been already implemented – open nature or alternative energy site related to hospitality business. Investigation Results A synthesis of approaches has been applied by embedding the  GD in the  Hospitality Business Toolkit including subject-oriented approach, action-by-learning approach, competence-based approach, competency- based approach, holistic approach, Entrepreneurial Education approach. The GD was embedded at all levels of the unit delivery. The unit was delivered from February 2019 by May 2019 to 30 students, 96.6% students have started the course with the average attendance 59% and average rate of regular 83.3% of attendees was 69%. In the  frame of the  third part of the  assignment, 29 students have applied for participation in X-Culture project from March 05, 2019 by 674 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 April 28, 2019. In total, 23 students of 29 (79.31%), average age 19 years old, from 9 countries were not excluded by the team and by the results dur- ing the project. Collectively, there were 698 teams with average 5–7 stu- dents on team. The average grade in the project track is 5.24 (74.86%) of scale 7 (X-Culture, 2019), the average grade of 22 Hotel School students of 23 in the list graded by 5-7 professors per report is 5.3 (75.71%) of 7. One of the students from Sri Lanka got in the list of the winning 40 best teams of 698 teams. Analysing the  results of the  first task of the  group assignment, Risk Management Plan, 23.4% of students have received 9 and Distinction, 40% of students – 8 and Merit, 16.6% of students – Pass from 5 to 7, 20% of students have no grades. Total results of the  individual exam in addition to BTEC assessment criteria are the  following: 24 (80%) students of 30 have taken the  exam with 100% positive results. The final positive grades in the Unit were received by 26 (86.67%) of the  30 students with possibility to improve BTEC criteria in assignments at timely first submission. The final grades for criteria P, M and D involve meeting all criteria included in the  programme by Pearson BTEC (2018, p.  102–108). However, the  tutor auxiliary has applied the  formative assessment by the  two mid-term tests and the final exam for the numeric grading in addition to P, M, D scale. Analysis of Achieved Learning Outcomes and Grading Based on the  conducted analysis of the  results, the  findings suggest that in general the  results of the  group work are higher than individual, therefore, it is important to include both group and individual tasks to assess the achievement of learning outcomes. On the other hand, the group work opens additional experience sharing and collaboration experience traced to employability skills and sustainable development. During the  unit completion, the  students have faced such challenges as coping with reading materials, language problem, time management, assignment burdens, culture difference based on the submissions, however, it is recommended to consider a  future study of the  learning challenges identified by the learners. Discussion The utmost importance is in the  synthesis and integrity of the criteria and approaches to be applied to embed GD, ESD, ESDGC in the competence based units with variety of the  methods of the  assessment to enable 675Olga Zvereva. Approaches to Embedding Global Dimension ... a  holistic approach as it has been piloted by the  case of the  Hospitality Business Toolkit. Another point to discuss is that in previous programme the Finance Unit was included in the third term when the students are already experienced in BTEC criteria system and have basic knowledge in other units, but the updated programme sets the Hospitality Business Unit as the first term unit when students face with law, financial management and accounting built in the Business Toolkit Unit. Conclusions The most obvious finding of this study is that a synthesis of approaches to embed GD, ESD, ESDGC in the  curriculum is of utmost importance. The  balance should be kept between values, employability skills and, in particular, financial literacy. The  weight of the  focus on values and employability skills should not denominate the  significance of the  competences and particular aspects as financial literacy. The  unity between the content, form and context in which the learning process takes place is significant for designing teaching-learning-evaluating strategies as from theory review. It is very important for the  tutors and programme leads to orientate among the variety of approaches to use them for efficiency and enhancing overall quality including grading, values, actions by the learners. The response to the  research question has been provided by studying and demonstrating the  ways GD can be embedded in Adult Curriculum to achieve Sustainable Development Goals’ targets including SD4 Quality Education and overall enhancing education. The Aim of the  Research is achieved by performed objectives, a conceptual overview of the approaches to embed GD in Adult Education Curriculum has been presented. The research raised the  questions to study in future exploration. The  theory review demonstrates the diversity of theoretical and practical application of the  approaches to embedding ESDGC and GD as well as absence of exact framework solution and data. Contribution An extensive literature review as a conclusion of the EU Erasmus KA2 Project Intellectual Outputs on embedding ESDGC and GD conducted collaboratively and individually has been presented in order to demonstrate the  existing spectrum of approaches noted for embedding GD, ESD, ESDGC not to denominate any of the mentioned approach as each of them 676 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 individually might be of utmost importance for the  designs of effective curriculums, courses, assignments. Limitations The case is based on a single case analysis with the limited number of students, which is, however, a vivid international example of the approaches and techniques to embed GD, ESD, ESDGC in the  curriculum and course design. The unit was delivered as first time delivery with embedded GD, ESD, ESDGC without an opportunity to compare the  historic results of the  same unit delivery excluding embedded GD, ESD, ESDGC as well as comparing several deliveries of the same unit set. Recommendations for Further Research As further research, the  results of the  same unit delivery over several terms are suggested to be investigated to work out the result statistics and study the influencing factors, the most effective and least effective approach taking into consideration multicultural students and institution external environment to focus on the approach combination taking in consideration the prior learning challenges in different regions. Acknowledgements Expressing gratitude to Pearson BTEC for the  shared experiences, X-Culture research partners and the partners of EU Erasmus Plus Project for cooperation and opportunity for research extension. References Barth, M. (2015). 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Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2014.0023. Zvereva, O. (2019). The  Hospitality Business Toolkit Assignment 2019. Hotel School Hotel Management College. 680 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 THE CULTURAL COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO AS A LONG-TERM INNOVATION FOR ALL LEVELS OF EDUCATION Austra Avotina University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT The paper describes the cultural competence portfolio, which is an innovative approach to the  organisation and evaluation of the  study process. This includes an active involvement of various study process components: creative work, expression of original ideas, recording of the research process and prevalent self-evaluation. The relevance of the subject of this paper is highlighted by the ongoing education reform in Latvia, which is built around a  purposeful, systematic competence development in eight of the  basic components for lifelong learning (European Parliament recommendations of Key competences for lifelong learning  – 2006/962/EC). One of these components is cultural awareness and expression. The research consists of three parts: • the portfolio approach in the study process; • cultural competence as a quality indicator of the education; • specific options of realisation and evaluation. According to the  definition, a  portfolio is a  collection of artefacts, materials and works, accumulated over a  certain period of time and it includes three equally important elements of the  competence: knowledge, skill and attitude. The  portfolio demonstrates accomplishments of a study process and serves as a positive self-evaluation in one or several areas. The portfolio approach can be used in different areas, but it has an especially high value in culture and arts studies. Therefore, the  main topic of the  research is the  cultural competence portfolio in particular, which can ensure the  compliance with the  education levels, defined by the European Qualifications framework (EQF). The cultural competence portfolio is a  collection of personal documents, which can and preferably should be supplemented, re-organised and changed over a  long-term period in line with its aims. Such portfolio is a  tool to fulfil the  aim of education and to reflect on some specific achievement. Not only is it an important tool in the areas of culture and art – for actors, musicians, architects, and models but also for every, student and human, who intentionally wants to develop his / her cultural competence as a lifelong process. Keywords: Portfolio, Cultural competence, Learning methods, Long-term innovation. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.49 Austra Avotina The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation ... 681Austra Avotina. The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation ... Introduction There are two reasons that substantiate the  topicality of this paper. The  first is the  rapid development of new technologies and digital communication, cognitive tools and everyday reality. This has created a  necessity to introduce in practice such teaching/learning methods that would reveal the  value of the  digital information flow and would correspond to the  new requirements of the  society, explaining the  study process as a  long-term innovation on all levels of education. Therefore, the emphasis should be laid on switching from a ready to use knowledge to a guided learning. This process has already been started, and it is especially topical at the  university-level studies. Due to this reason, the  paper explores on the  study dealing with the  impact of the  development of the portfolio on the study process. After the first two steps are completed, the final assessment will be provided. The experiment was carried out in the  Medieval art history course within the  bachelor study programme at the Latvian Academy of Art It was performed from 2016 till 2018, involving 145 second year students. The second reason is the  education reform of Latvia implemented in the frame of the National Centre for Education project “Competence-based approach in the  teaching/learning content” (Skola2030, 2019). Its aim is to work out, pilot and then introduce successively innovative changes in the teaching/learning approach. What is at the heart of this reform is that students should be capable of applying their knowledge and skills acquired at school in real life situations; they should develop a deeper understanding of subject in each teaching/learning domain. In order to achieve this, the  learner should be at the  centre of the  study process; he / she should learn to think, cooperate, seek answers. This suggests that each student should be able to construct the meaning of the acquirable content. Within the framework of the project, a survey was carried out in the second part of 2018. It involved 737 parents and 3304 students from 327 schools of Latvia. (as respondents). The  project manager Olina points out that the  aspects that have been identified during the survey complies with the offered new teaching/learning content. It provides broader aims for education as it is envisaged to acquire also general skills or transversal skills, to cultivate value-based habits, the skill to apply the knowledge in complex situations along with the  knowledge at school. The  fragmentation and the  scope of the teaching/learning content is reduced to the emphasis on interconnections and interdisciplinarity. In their answers, students have expressed the desire for a personalized approach to the teaching/learning process. They feel that sometimes their diligence and invested work is undervalued. Thus, students and their parents consider that the  assessment system should be oriented 682 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 towards the  personal growth. Students also indicate that they wish their contribution, the invested work, attitude and diligence were also assessed, even if the  final performance or outcome is with mistakes (Skola2030, 2019). The  answers, particularly, support the  conclusion, which is also important in the  context of this paper: the  assessment is inadequate in the subjects of culture understanding and art domain. Consequently, when grading subjects such as art and music, the teachers should consider specific aspects, for example talent being one of them. This will definitely lead to a better structured and understandable way of assessment. Students are offered to compile a cultural competence portfolio as one of the  methods and innovative ideas in the  context of the  Educational system of Latvia, which would serve both as the reflection of the learning process and the  indicator of personal growth. Additionally, it is going to demonstrate the  usefulness of outcomes and demonstrate the  attitude  – contribution, efficiency, the invested work and diligence. Both reasons are topical on all levels of education and lifelong learning. (And the above-mentioned topicalities have defined the idea of this paper). Therefore, the  aim of the  paper is to discuss the  approach of compiling the  cultural competence portfolio as a  long-term innovation and reveal a  learner’s attitudes towards forming a  portfolio as an opportunity for applying it as a quality indicator of education. Three objectives are set for the research analysed in this paper: • to determine the place of the portfolio approach in the study process; • to argue that cultural competence may serve as a quality indicator of education in the in the era of visual communication and information technologies; • to give some examples of specific options of realisation and evaluate status quo. Several questions can be put forward in the context of the aim. What is a portfolio in education? What is the cultural competence portfolio? How to increase the learning motivation and how to assess attitude and what is the correlation between each other? Methodology A portfolio as a  learning method (Paulson, 1991, Hamp-Lyons, 2000, Grosch, 2003, Adamski, 2003, Winter, 2015) is emphasized by distinguishing three types of a  portfolio (personal, professional and study). The  second part of the  paper substantiates the  acknowledgement of the  cultural competence portfolio as the  learner’s personal growth indicator. Its introduction in the  teaching/learning process can improve the  study programmes, thus, (being able to implement?) implementing 683Austra Avotina. The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation ... a  meaningful learning process? (Sauleniene, 2015, Dellen, 2012, Milson, Brantley, 1999). The third part, referring to the samples of history portfolio, describes a  concrete task of the  study process. The  results are elucidated with some concrete data obtained from a practical study about the impact of the portfolio on the study process. The portfolio approach in the study process The term portfolio is widely used and is especially well-known in art professions. It serves as a proof of the professional mastery and usually is a collection of pictures, papers or ideas. In the etymological sense, portfolio – portare (Latin) means: to have or hold; folio – paper, sheet of paper; protefeuille (French) means  – carry (porter) sheet (feuille); portable folder for papers, books, textbooks, notebooks. In the  study process, it means a  selection of a student’s work (such as papers and tests) compiled over a period of time and used for assessing his / her performance or progress (Portfolio, 2019). The  first precise definition of what portfolio is in the  teaching/learning context has been developed and presented in a conference in ... already in 1990 but published a  year later: “A portfolio is a  purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress, and achievements in one or more areas. The  collection must include student participation in selecting contents, the  criteria for selection, the  criteria for judging merit, and evidence of student self-reflection” (Paulson, 1991, 60). Eight guidelines that (would) promote self-guided learning are mentioned and the  strength and importance of this idea are substantiated. For instance, what is especially topical in 2020, i.e., 30 years later – is the third comment about the importance of the so-called student’s cumulative folder. Nowadays, many people have such a folder with a collection of pictures and texts. They can be stored as an e-portfolio (digital portfolio). Whatever richness of information they had in the files, the portfolio should only include the information that provides some context with the rest of the collected material. The author then can allocate a new value this material through the already developed context. This is a direct answer to the topical question – does the wide accessibility of information already solve the topicality of learning? It is possible to claim that only such information, which has its particular place in the existing notions (thus, the principle of self-evident succession) and to which its acquirer can allocate the  context meaning (thus, already the meaning of application) is useful for further studies? The  information itself (whether it is copied or available only digitally) cannot help much if it has not found a concrete place and if it does not form a context with what has been known before. A certain level of competence (corresponding to the learner’s age group) is needed for establishing the context. Therefore, the use of both words together directly refers to the  learning process. The  term means an organized set of factual 684 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 materials, individual works and projects, which have been collected over a  definite period of time and serve to reflect the  learning achievements, skills and attitude. In essence, it is a tool for positive self-assessment in one or several areas or subjects. Cultural competence as a quality indicator of the education The competence is considered to be a wider concept than knowledge and skills. It includes also motivation and attitude in its cognitive and socially ethnic facets (Cedefop, 2014). The competence can be learned (Nordenbo, 2008, 70). This is especially important for developing the indicators, because it is important to understand the  contribution of the  education towards the  development of competence. Similar to portfolio the  competence has two dimensions – an external and an internal dimension. The cultural competence encompasses analytical knowledge, positive and simultaneously interested understanding of cultural heritage, the significance of a  cultural era phenomenon and its emergence types (knowledge); the necessity and skills to apply the cultural values, to evaluate and create new ones, thus developing new learning methods (skills); a  developed capability to evaluate the  interrelationships and motivation and self- evaluative attitude to act creatively and actively as well as in accordance with cultural topicalities of the era (attitude). All three mentioned parts of the  competence are reflected in the  content of the  competence portfolio. The depth of the knowledge (the scope of facts) and their arrangement and comments (skills), the structure and appearance of the portfolio, which show the attitude, can be assessed. The content of cultural competence portfolio represents an organized set of factual materials, own works and projects, which have been collected over a definite period of time and serve to reflect the learning achievements, skills and attitude. Actually, it is a tool for positive self-assessment in one or several areas. The portfolio can be compiled in two ways. One is the- so-called “external” way, which comprises everything that corresponds to the aim and can be found in the study process, and the other; the-so-called, “internal” way contains the reflection of the student’s learning process  – the personal contribution, growth and work with the  “external” part (Sauleniene, 2015). The  selection of the  collected materials has been performed; comments, reviews, critical analyses, drawings, digital collections, etc. have been carried out. The “internal” part of the portfolio is the most important one. The personally significant, meaningful, experienced and reflected material comprises its content. “When being compiled during studies, the  competence portfolio can help to improve study programmes and ensure deeper and more meaningful studies” (Sauleniene, 2015, 92). It is the  practical part of the  teaching/learning process the  importance of which is especially emphasised in the education reform. 685Austra Avotina. The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation ... Specific options of realisation and evaluation It is also possible to define the  structure of the  portfolio. Firstly, it is a  reflection (questions, contemplations) about all that has been heard, seen, experienced – the selection has to be done depending on the aim and objective of the portfolio (it can be thematically narrow, interdisciplinary, devoted to the  particular project, etc.). Secondly, it is an annotated bibliography which means a  collection of the  collected materials  – documents, books, internet sources, music, etc. and comments on them. This part includes also study materials  – self-control tests, tasks, etc. A  significant condition is a  systematic work with these materials during a  particular time period, namely, to develop metacognitive skills and to apply them purposefully. The teacher’s assistance is needed here; therefore, the  self-evaluation process should be structured and it must be analysed together (both in mutual cooperation with and under the  teacher’s guidance). This fosters the habit of thinking (reflecting) on what is known and what happens during the teaching/learning process. “As students select items for inclusion, they are expected to develop and express clear rationales for how these items demonstrate knowledge acquisition and reflective thinking” (Milson, Brantley, 1999, 375). This develops purposefulness and habits of practical (rational) action and allows avoiding the  inclusion of ungrounded or formally added materials. The practical part of the  learning process is very important; it should include visits to exhibitions, purposeful tours and trips. The activities should be well-considered and targeted. Students should reflect on the activities by writing essays, critiques or reports. Everything that has been experienced is noted and reflected upon. An artists’ portfolio mainly consists of drawings. In this case, drawing is similar to thinking. It is a  process which records the  retrospectively important experience. In history, there are many examples which show that the  collections of sketches and drawings have formed a self-guided (lifelong learning) process. Very often it is a process caused only by the-so-called self-initiative (initiated by self-motivation). It is worth here highlighting three differently preserved examples, whose cultural, historical and pedagogical importance are invaluable. The first to be mentioned is Johann Christoph Brotze (Broce, 1742–1823), a  teacher, historian and ethnographer of Livonia. Brotze’s heritage is a  unique portfolio containing thematically, factually and chronologically diverse, but unsystematic materials, including a large number of unique – anywhere else not documented  – historical references. There is an impressive collection of Brotze’s drawn and collected pictures: 10-volume manuscript Sammlung verschiedner Liefländischer Monumente, Prospect, Müntzen etc. (Taimina, 2013,  18). This portfolio demonstrates not only J. K. Brotze’s personal interest in the  history of culture but also the  reflection of the  Livonian 686 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 society of the 18th century – it serves as a mirror of knowledge, skills and attitudes. This is a collection with a unique, wide-scale value. The second example, also important in the  context of this paper, is Leonardo da Vinci Codex Arundel. Notebook of Leonardo da Vinci (Leonardo da Vinci, 1452–1519). It is a portfolio (1480-1518) of completely self-guided, unstoppable and ravenous process of research and analysis, the collection of contexts and inventions, created by one author. It consists of notes, diagrams, drawings, texts, covering a wide range of topics in science and art. Some personal notes (on 283 paper sheets) are also included. Leonardo has described it as “a collection without order, drawn from many papers, which I have copied here, hoping to arrange them later each in its place according to the subjects of which they treat” (Leonardo da Vinci, 1518). It should be mentioned that he himself failed to structure it. It is only one example that proves the necessity to structure and arrange one’s portfolio materials since the very start – and this should be taught to every student already at an early age. The third example is directly connected to the  qualitative research, in which the  obtained data serve as evidence for the  positive impact of the portfolio on the teaching/learning process. The author used the study portfolio of the  artist and architect  – Villard de Honnecourt (Vilars de Honecourt, before 1230  – after 1235), who lived in the  13th century, as the  source of inspiration for this task. It is the  oldest known portfolio of such a  type. The  author has recorded buildings, people, clothing, furniture, household items, animals, details, tools, inventions etc.. These are 33 parchment sheets with 250 drawings, which are the most important original source from the High Gothic about the architecture and methods of construction (Honnecourt, 1906). Inspired by these, students received a  task to form a  portfolio of drawings with 33 sheets as a  minimum, to provide substantiation for the idea and comment on each of the drawings about the  source and the  reason for including it in the  portfolio. Those could be sketches in nature (time, place in relation to the Middle Ages?) and collected images (with indicated source, value, importance to medieval research). (The qualitative research obtained data about the  impact of compiling a  portfolio on the  study process and the  final assessment in the  Medieval art history course in the  bachelor study programme at the  Latvian Academy of Art. The  research was performed from 2016 till 2018 and it involved 145 second year students.) The  following were set as the  assessment criteria  – the  size, uniqueness of an object, choice, imagination and vision when drawing modern objects Additional items such as professional substantiation and their relationship to the medieval ideas were required to be included. The  format was not prescribed, and this allowed students to express themselves in the most diverse ways – as 687Austra Avotina. The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation ... a  result, miniature masterpieces in octavo format (170×108 mm), and large parchment-like sets of pages in the  folio format (445×307 mm) were received; each student had a  possibility to find the  format and technique that corresponded to his/her artistic way. An approach to apply the  methods of the  chosen art studies area was suggested, e.g., students of the glass study department were advised to study stained glass in more detail but sculpture department students  – works of sculpture. A prerequisite of such a task is the length of the study course which cannot be shorter than 20 weeks because the compilation of the portfolio occurs along with the study process. The instructor encouraged students to study literature and digital sources. This was done with a  purpose to improve the drawing skills of students. The particular approach however, was not assessed as academic professionality. Each of the above-mentioned criteria needs broader comments, which are subject to a separate paper. Results The description of results includes the  qualitative data which was obtained during the  examination days when giving back the  portfolio materials to the  students. Then the  benefits of this task were discussed, and the  students expressed their opinion about such an assessment form. As the  research includes three student groups from different study years, the  data were structured according to these years and summarised in the spring of 2019. The research participants were in total 145 respondents in average age of 20 years and of various art programs at the  Latvian Academy of Arts. During the exam, students took part in interviews. They provided answers to the  same 5 questions; the  results are summarised in Table 1. After the interviews, the answers were coded und differentiated on three levels. As seen in Table 1, all in all students’ attitude to this task was very positive. The average indicator of a very positive assessment of the task is 70%. It is important to indicate that 9% of students who have not considered the  task useful actually are the  ones who have not attended the  classes (or have done it rarely). Thus, they have been outside the common study atmosphere and its impact. A  significant indicator are the  answers to the  fifth question, where positive (“fully agree”) answers are only 54%. This shows a  low self-assessment, probably the  inability or the  lack of experience in assessing one’s own work. Another important indicator is that with every next year and especially in the third year the number of positive assessments continued to increase. This allows to conclude that there is inter-communication among students and the  positive attitude has been spread; thus  – the  disposition to such a  task becomes more positive and 688 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 is taken for granted. So, it is possible to change the conditions of the task, enlarging the depth of the study and solving the possible options in order to introduce reciprocal evaluation. In case of the portfolio, their display for general viewing was problematic, and it took a rather long time to receive the assessment. But such a solution would give an additional value to this task because students would gain their own experience and understanding about different ways of visual expression, different ways of thinking and perception of the study content. Table 1. Qualitative survey (individual discussion) about the importance of the portfolio in the study process. Academic year 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 Number of students 53 48 44 Commented opinion Fully agree Partly agree Dis- agree Fully agree Partly agree Dis- agree Fully agree Partly agree Dis- agree 1. Did the compiling of the portfolio help/ motivate for deeper studying? 35 10 8 32 8 8 37 5 2 2. Has the compiling of the portfolio changed the initial views about the medieval culture and art? 33 15 5 29 14 5 39 5 0 3. Would it be beneficial to use such a form of tasks also in the acquisition of other periods in the history of art? 28 20 5 34 10 4 39 3 2 4. Has the compiling of the study portfolio helped the professional development? 42 8 3 40 8 0 37 5 2 5. Do you consider your portfolio interesting, useful and artistically important material? 26 18 9 28 10 10 25 15 4 Total : 5 questions 164:5 71:5 30:5 163:5 50:5 38:5 177:5 33:5 10:5 Percent of students 62% 27% 11% 68% 21% 11% 80% 15% 5% The second correlation that was stated and which is a  significant indicator of the  portfolio’s impact on the  study process is the  quality of the final assessment. When summarizing the research data, a question was posted whether a  link existed between high assessment of the  portfolio 689Austra Avotina. The Cultural Competence Portfolio as a Long-Term Innovation ... and the assessment of the examination work. It was established that out of 145 respondents 65, who had received high assessment of their portfolio, had also passed the  examination with an excellent, very good or good mark. However, it is only 44% of the  total number of respondents. This result shows that even before getting the  assessment in the  examination, there are more those students who have expressed a  positive attitude to the compiling of the portfolio (70%). It serves as evidence that there will always be students who are willing to perform different practical tasks but are not ready to participate in the theoretical part (acquisition of knowledge) of the study process. In all cases, when students received the highest mark in the examination, their portfolio had also been highly assessed. There are rather few cases, when it did not correlate, and the reasons are various – as admitted by students themselves – it has been the lack of time, illness, unexpected situations, laziness, etc. Conclusions 1. Portfolio is a  compilation of academic work and other forms of educational evidence assembled for the purpose to reveal the  learning process; it is an essential tool both for students and educators. 2. Any portfolio in its substance is a  cultural competence portfolio. It is a  “living” document, which can be always supplemented, restructured and expanded to meet the  goals. It is a  personal document, which becomes a tool to accomplish the academic goals. 3. Reflection is an important component of the  portfolio method. It is crucial not only to collect the documents in it but also to have a clear understanding, what and why is compiled in it. 4. The portfolio is an alternative assessment method with formative value for students that fosters the learning motivation in a positive way. 5. Students and teachers can use the portfolio as a basis for discussion and reflection on the  academic achievements and learning process due to the “living nature” of the portfolio. The compiling of the  cultural competence portfolio improves the learning outcomes. It promotes self-guided learning, helps to memorize the  chosen (significant) facts, deepens the  understanding and affects positively students’ attitude to the  learning process in general, which, in turn, facilitates the cooperation skills, positive attitude and the realization of motivated learning in the study process becoming a long-term innovation in the context of lifelong education. 690 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 References Adamski, P. (2003). Bewertungsprobleme bei Portfolio- und Projektarbeit [Evaluation problems in portfolio and project work]. Retrieved from https://www.nibis.de/ uploads/1chaplin/files/Adamski_Bewertungsprobleme_bei_Portfolio.pdf. Cedefop (2014). Terminology of European education and training policy: a selection of 130 terms. 2nd ed. Luxembourg: Publications Office. 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Seelze: Klett/Kallmeyer, 41–65. 691Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 MAPPING AS A TOOL FOR BIOMATERIALS STUDY CONTENT HARMONIZATION WITH SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH FINDINGS Rudīte Koka Riga Stradins University, Latvia Nora Jansone-Ratinika Riga Stradins University, Latvia Tatjana Koķe Riga Stradins University, Latvia Matīss Sīlis Riga Stradins University, Latvia Raimonds Strods Riga Stradins University, Latvia ABSTRACT Riga Stradins University (RSU) has almost 70-year-experience in implementing health care and 20-year-experience social science studies. RSU has more than 9000 students, 26% of whom are international students. International recognition is enabled by direct correlation between quality of studies and competitiveness of graduates. Quality of studies is being systematically improved and mapping of the  study results is a  significant tool in implementation of the  process. A  mapping system created by RSU makes it possible to analyse study programmes, study course connections, succession, implementation, novelty and correspondence to the  professional standard requirements, identifying level of alignment between graduate outcomes, study programme, study course results and study activities. Consequently, it is possible to trace synergy between a study programme and development tendencies of the  discipline. With rapid developments in the  medical industry, discussions about the  use of biomaterials are being raised, which is an essential component in strategical specialisation fields in Medicine and Dentistry in RSU. Biomaterials are used in many of today’s medical devices, including artificial skin, blood vessels, hearts, pacemakers, dental fillings, wires, plates and pins for bone repair, total artificial joint replacements. The aim of the research is to study the conformity of biomaterials content acquisition in RSU Dentistry study programme to significant research findings. https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.50 Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods.. 692 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Qualitative methodology is used in the research: study course learning outcomes mapping, interviews with field experts, observation of the  course, study programme and course leaders and student focus group. Upon evaluation of the obtained research results, the  following conclusions are proposed: • The theme ‘biomaterials’ is very topical in Dentistry study programme and its significance is ascertained to have a tendency to increase. • Balanced distribution of biomaterials content in the  study programme is needed to ensure more successive and systemic acquisition of study results. • To foster students’ readiness to work with biomaterials in a  clinic, improvement in cooperation of the  faculty is necessary which would facilitate the appropriateness of specific content to Dentistry sub-sectors. Summarising the research results, it can be concluded that study course learning outcomes mapping and interviews with education actors involved in the  study programme, have helped to discover the  essence and range of biomaterials content acquisition, succession, reciprocal links at study course level and appropriateness of content to significant research findings. The  obtained results have been conceptualised, communicated to various target groups and update of Dentistry study programme is based on them. Keywords: biomaterials, acquisition of study results, mapping, dentistry. Introduction RSU is one of the  most modern universities in the  Baltics and enjoys a high reputation for its study quality on an international level. One of the  cornerstone principles of the  quality assurance at RSU is safeguarding the  relevance of the  study content to industry trends and requirements. To assure this relevance, the study programme content and learning outcomes have to be reviewed and updated on an ongoing basis. To institutionalise this process of curriculum review, RSU has implemented practice of building and maintaining curriculum maps. Curriculum mapping is a  process of developing a  visual map of all courses in the  curriculum and evaluating course content to determine if any gaps or excessive overlap exist, and to ensure all courses meet the  study programme learning outcomes (Harden, 2001; Plaza et al., 2007). Curriculum map is a  tool that allows the  stakeholders to visualise the curriculum by ordering the relationships between various elements of the curriculum. Traditionally the study programme content is managed by academics in isolation from each other, rarely working together to achieve the  programme learning outcomes. This creates a  risk that some courses will overlap and address similar learning outcomes multiple times, while not addressing some of the  learning outcomes at all. Curriculum map assists in identifying these overlaps and gaps in the curriculum and make them transparent to the stakeholders (Steketee, 2015). 693Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods... In 2018, RSU study programme directors mapped learning outcomes at the study programme level to learning outcomes at the study course level, creating curriculum maps for each of the RSU study programmes. During this process multiple improvements to study programmes were identified. Previous research (Uchiyama & Radin, 2009; Joyner, 2016) has identified the  importance of faculty involvement in the  mapping process for buy- in and effective implementation of curriculum improvements, therefore a decision to validate the  relevance of mapping results with stakeholders was made. This case study describes how curriculum mapping results were used to identify improvements in biomaterials study content, validate these findings with students, faculty and industry representatives, and achieve consensus on the  necessary changes to the  curriculum of the  dentistry study programme. The five-year long dentistry study programme provides a platform for the  acquisition of the  skills required for examination of a  patient’s oral cavity and teeth, identification of dental problems and for undergoing complex dental treatment. The programme emphasises the  importance of first undergoing practice on dental trainer and simulation models prior to working in a  clinic in real life conditions. Mapping of the programme learning outcomes indicated potential improvements in the  organisation of theoretical content of the  study programme related to the  use of biomaterials in dentistry. The complexity of the design of the study programme, the improvement of its implementation and the successful achievement of learning outcomes is determined by the fact that research on biomaterials is developing very rapidly. Experts all over the  world are looking for the  most successful solutions for developing and synthesizing bone or tissue-like materials. These smart materials can be used to develop innovative third-generation biomaterials (Rey et al., 2011). Third-generation biomaterials show great promise. They are being designed to stimulate specific cellular responses at the  molecular level and that involve molecular tailoring of resorbable polymers for specific cellular responses (Hench & Polak, 2002). Biomaterials or biocompatible materials are primarily biomimetic materials capable of not only interacting with biomaterials (such as tissues, bones), but also of imitating or even enhancing their functions (Hench & Polak, 2002). Understanding the  biological formation of different mineralized structures could lead to innovative approaches toward engineering novel scaffolds providing new therapeutics. Additionally, unlike other biomineralized tissues, such as bone and dentin, mature enamel is acellular and does not reabsorb or remodel. As a result, enamel regeneration cannot 694 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 occur in vivo following the failure and is therefore an attractive target for future biomimetic and therapeutic approaches (Roveri & Iafisco, 2010). Contemporary dentistry applies several types of barrier membranes and graft materials used in guided bone regeneration (GBR). Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Features of materials daily use in dentistry and in maxillofacial surgery were emphasized (Rodella et al., 2011). Biomaterials are widely used as implant materials in dentistry. An ideal implant material should be biocompatible, with adequate toughness, strength, corrosion, wear and fracture resistance (Osman & Swain, 2015). The main goal of all these sectoral studies is to create biomaterials that are as compatible with human tissues as possible, not only to perform their functions, but even to improve them. Aim of the Study The development of the sector and professional performance in practice correlate directly with the quality of the study programme, which logically justifies the goal of the research to study the correspondence of biomaterials content acquisition in RSU study programme “Dentistry” to significant research findings. Materials and Methods In the  theoretical part of the  study, the  scientific literature provides a justification for mapping of learning outcomes as a tool for the analysis and improvement of the  study quality, as well as for the  topicality of the biomaterial development research and use in dentistry. The empirical part of the study includes several stages. The pedagogical research was carried out in RSU study programme of Dentistry from September 2018 to May 2019. Three stages were distinguished in the research plan; in which data were obtained by using various methods (see Figure 1). Stage 1: identification of Biomaterials content in the  Study Programme and Study Courses and Mapping of Study Results (Learning Outcomes). The  resulting understanding of thematic systematisation of biomaterials content related key words and identification of relations between the study results in various study courses. Successively, in Stage 2 the  data were obtained in several clusters: structured peer observation of the  study courses was made and interviews with field experts were held, and study programme and course leaders focus group was set up. As a result, the opinion of the teaching staff on the  use of various materials, including biomaterials, in dentistry, on the  scope of learning, succession, topicality and possibilities to implement the content according to the latest trends in science in various study courses 695Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods... was summarised. During Stage 3, the final stage, a student focus group was formed. This stage of the study summarises the students’ opinion on learning about various materials used in dentistry, including biomaterials (their diversity, properties, usability, topicality, etc.) in various study courses. Figure 1. Stages in conducting the study The study was conducted using the  qualitative research approach with data being obtained through: mapping of study courses, interviews with industry experts and the Head of the study programme, focus group discussions with leaders of study courses and students and structured pedagogical observation. The  data obtained in the  study were recorded in audio recordings, transcripts were prepared and Microsoft Excel 2016 program was used for the analysis. Personal data protection was ensured in data collection, processing and analysis. As a  result of the mapping, 16 study courses were identified in which students successively acquire the theoretical understanding of biomaterials needed for further development of skills in preclinical and clinical study courses. As a result of the mapping, a report material was created (Microsoft Excel 2016) on the basis of the following criteria: the department teaching the study course, the leader of the study course and the lecturers involved in the  implementation of the  study course, the  necessary prerequisites for the  students, the  aim of the  study course, the period needed to learn the  content of the  study course, the  number of credit points, the  main topics of lectures and practical classes, learning outcomes: knowledge, skills and competence, independent work of students, assessment criteria and the type of final examination. 696 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 These study courses were grouped according to the  main areas of the dental sector: cariology, endodontology, periodontology, surgery and prosthetic. In order to successfully fulfil the  further tasks of the  study, the  mapping results were presented in the  focus group discussion for the  Head of the  study programme and for the  leader of the  study course “Biomaterials in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery”. A  joint analysis of the  obtained results lead to creation of interview questions for the  lecturers of the  study courses and for the  discussion of the  student focus group, and to selection of the  study courses for pedagogical observation, for which a  structured protocol was drawn up. For an in- depth analysis of the mapping results, an expert from each of the above mentioned areas was invited to a structured interview. Five students from the  second, third, fourth and fifth year of study, that have acquired or are currently studying one of the  study courses identified as a  result of mapping, participated in the  student focus group. Students applied on a voluntary basis. Results The data obtained during the  study show that the  mapping approach and the  system used at RSU allows analysing and identifying study programmes, links between the  study courses, their succession, implementation, novelty and compliance with the  requirements of the  occupational standard, thus providing valuable information for the  analysis of the  quality and successive improvement. The  results structured according to data clusters were obtained in the  study. As a  result of the  mapping, a  hierarchical system of 16 study courses (see Figure 2) was created reflecting the successive learning of the theoretical and practical biomaterials content in RSU study programme “Dentistry”. Acquisition of all the  content in the  study programme is organised in accordance with the  key areas of the  sector, in which the  necessity for learning the biomaterials content was identified: cariology, endodontology, periodontology, surgery and prosthetic,  – The  table shows which study courses incorporate the  topical and sector-specific theoretical material on biomaterials. For example, the study course “Preclinical and Clinical Course in Endodontics” includes the following learning outcome: the student will name and describe endodontic materials. Whereas, the  learning outcome for the study course “Preclinical Course in Operative Dentistry I” is to fill the  established cavities with adequate dental filling material, applying a  sequence of manipulations corresponding to the  material used. So, different biomaterials are used in different areas of dentistry. Figure  2, however, shows which theoretical material acquired during preclinical 697Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods... study courses should be used for further development of their skills, how to select the appropriate biomaterials and use them to treat the patient. For example, the  learning outcome in the preclinical part of the study course “Preprosthetic Surgery” requires that the student is able to choose the right method of implantation and performs dental implantation in an artificial jaw; and successively, in the clinical part of the course the student will do clinical case planning and surgical treatment and prosthetics to a patient. The  first study course devoted to this topic in the  study programme “Dentistry” is “Biomaterials in Dentistry”, which students undertake during the second semester of the first year of study in the amount of one credit point. This study course is taught at the Department of Physics in cooperation with the  lecturers involved in the  dentistry programme. On completion of the study course, students will have acquired the competence to evaluate physical properties of biomaterials and their use. The learning outcomes suggest that students will use the terms used in physics correctly, including those related to biomaterials; will describe the  properties of biomaterials and the physical processes that characterise them; will define methods for determining the physical properties of biomaterials; will have acquired skills to describe the  regularities of the  deformation theory for the comparative characterisation of the mechanical properties of different biomaterials and will be able to predict the  behaviour of biomaterials under the influence of various factors (static and dynamic load, changes in Figure 2. Curriculum Mapping resulted in a hierarchical system of study courses 698 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 external factor parameters). The study course “Biomaterials in Dentistry” is planned in the format of four lectures and two practical classes with a final examination in the form of a semester test on biomaterials. The table shows that successful learning of the  four study courses included in the  Cariology direction leads students to the  acquisition of the  study courses “Paediatric Therapeutic Dentistry I” and “Therapeutic Dentistry” during the 4th year of study, where the learning outcome is to evaluate the  correlations and integrate the knowledge acquired in other medical and dental sectors into diagnosing, prognosticating and treating caries, pathology of hard dental tissues and pulpal and periodontal pathology both in children and adults, which means that they are able to clinically accept and treat patients. Whereas, successful completion of the  study courses of the  four main areas allows the  student to achieve successively the  level of the  fifth year of study, which includes the  study course “Integrated Dentistry” and the  learning outcome is to evaluate the  patient’s dental health in general and provide all the necessary treatment according to their level of competence: complete full diagnostics, develop a  treatment plan and complete the  treatment successfully. Thus the achieved result by the student conforms to Article 1.58.3 of the occupational standard regarding the professional competence needed for carrying out the  professional activity (National Centre for Education, 2012). In the  mapping process, when analysing the  use of the  concept biomaterials, it was found that different concepts were used in the  study course descriptions: various filling materials, sealing with various materials, available materials, applicable materials. Therefore, the  interviews clarified the  industry experts’ understanding of the concept of biomaterials and its place in a larger thematic block. In discussing the mapping results with the Head of the study programme and the leader of the study course “Biomaterials in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery”, the viewpoint was expressed that a deeper analysis was needed to improve the proportional distribution of the content in the study programme and to achieve a more successive and systemic acquisition of the learning outcomes, taking into account the fact that six RSU departments and at least 51 lecturers are involved in the  implementation of the  topic biomaterials. Large number of the  involved lecturers demands a  unified conception of the content implementation. During the discussion, the Head of the study programme noted that a number of individual conversations with students took place in the previous academic year and the opinion of students on the necessity to improve the content acquisition was expressed. Analysing the data obtained in interviews and the focus group, it can be concluded that the opinion of both lecturers and students on the definition 699Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods... of biomaterials coincides with that defined in the  theoretical literature. Colleagues emphasized that they are materials that are compatible with the human body and their diversity is very wide, as well as drew attention to the  fact that each area of dentistry has its own material specificity and different types of biomaterials, for example, one type of biomaterials may be used in oral, facial and jaw surgery, but other biomaterials in periodontology and endodontics. “...We have divided into very small sections, each course in dentistry speaks about its kind of biomaterials...there is enormous number of materials, each specific case requires its own material, therefore creating a  special course devoted to biomaterials would be quite useless.” All respondents, both lecturers and industry experts and students, agree that the topic biomaterials is very topical. “..Very topical. In my opinion, the most topical subject in medicine, because we will use them in prosthetics, implantation.. we can help people more and more.” Considering that the research and use of biomaterials in medicine have been developing rapidly, lecturers follow the latest trends in this field and include this content in their study courses by improving prosthetic techniques and devices, studying interactions between implants and biological tissues, and so on (Bruschi et al., 2015). However, both lecturers and students admit that not all study courses are currently fully implemented. Students particularly emphasize that they would like to have general study courses that are more focused and more directly linked to dentistry, and in general it is essential to work continuously towards systemically integrating the most topical and latest achievements of the sector into the programme. In a  number of quotes, the  students reveal the  latest developments in the  sector related to biomaterials. “..we could talk about the  biological contact between the tissue and prosthesis; look at their cross-section, as well as the interaction between the implants and biological tissues, which would also be useful for us later in surgery.” Some lecturers particularly emphasize succession in learning the content. “..there are study courses where the  topic is discussed at the  theoretical level, then the  students go to the  preclinic and logically the  information is supplemented, and in the clinic, too… (..) we need to know what to use..” Students also acknowledge the  importance of gradual and successive acquisition of knowledge and skills; emphasize the importance of relevance of the scope of the content, accurate selection of the content and linkage with the practice. 700 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 “..to learn not about all the possible materials in dentistry, but only about the specific materials we will use in prosthetics, such as linking the materials with the  real situation in the  patient’s mouth, and there are thousands of different adjustments that will have to be considered. It would help, if we more analysed clinical cases.” For the  improvement of succession, lecturers and students recommend reviewing the place of the study course “Biomaterials in Dentistry” within the  study programme. At present it is included in the  1st year of study together with the  content of medical physics and the  students have the next contact with this topic only in the 3rd year of study, which makes it difficult to learn the content continuously and consolidate it successively. “..He learns some sort of theoretical formula, something which is isolated from real life, and then either he learns or does not learn, remembers or does not remember, because at that point it was not important for him and later it is difficult or even impossible to link”. Industry experts admit that the leader of each study course individually makes improvements in the study course, but more careful work is needed in interdisciplinary collegial harmonisation of the content, because mutual cooperation between lecturers is a  prerequisite for the  preparedness of students to work in the clinic. This is also confirmed by the data obtained from pedagogical observations. “..we improve the  study course every year because we notice some inaccuracies or we realise how we can better teach it”; “..we have not coordinated the biomaterials content among ourselves…” Both lecturers and students aim to improve the  content and process of studies to the  search, analysis and use of scientific research, closer links between theory and practice, so that the  student can understand the  practical applicability of knowledge as early as possible: preparation of biomaterials, testing of physical properties and compatibility with biological tissues. “..I would be interested, if we are talking about the properties of materials, such as the load resistance or wear, then I would like to test it practically with biomaterials, because it will be important for me to explain it to the patient.” The results of the  study demonstrate the  importance of research on biomaterials content in the  study programme of dentistry. The  mapping of study courses and interviews with the  educational actors involved in the  study programme have allowed to discover the  nature and amount of the  biomaterials content to be learned, succession, interconnection at 701Rudīte Koka, Nora Jansone-Ratinika, Tatjana Koķe, Matīss Sīlis, Raimonds Strods... the level of study courses and the relevance of the topics to major research worldwide. The  results obtained are conceptualised and communicated in various target groups and the  plan for the  improvement of the  study programme is based on them. Conclusions The analysis of the results obtained leads to the conclusion that: 1. The biomaterials theme is very topical in the  study programme “Dentistry” and its significance is ascertained to have a  tendency to increase; 2. Balanced distribution of biomaterials content in the  study programme is needed to ensure more successive and systemic acquisition of study results; 3. To foster students’ readiness to work with biomaterials in a  clinic, improvement in cooperation of the  faculty is necessary which would facilitate the  appropriateness of the  specific content to Dentistry sub-sectors. The following recommendations are put forward for a meaningful analysis and improvement of the quality of the study process: 1. To improve and organize a  regular, systematic communication and cooperation among the  stakeholders, to produce a  3600 feedback  – from lecturers, students, management, support staff and industry re presentatives; 2. To come to an agreement on common understanding and use of concepts; 3. Based on mapping results, to come to an agreement on meaningful and successive integration of biomaterials content in theoretical, pre-clinical and clinical study courses; 4. To ensure that each course is based on previously acquired knowledge and complements it with the  subject-specific content, but does not repeat the previously acquired content; 5. To update biomaterials content according to the latest research. References Bruschi, M., Steinmüller-Nethl, D., Goriwoda, W., & Rasse, M. (2015). Composition and Modifications of Dental Implant Surfaces. Journal of Oral Implants, Volume 2015, 14 pages. Retrieved from https://www.hindawi.com/journals/joi/2015/527426/. Harden, J. (2001). AMEE Guide No. 21: Curriculum Mapping: A tool for transparent and authentic teaching and learning. Medical Teacher, 23(2), 123–137. Hench, L.  L., & Polak, J.  M. (2002). Third–generation biomedical materials. Science, 295, 1014–1017. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11834817. 702 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Joyner, H. S. (2016). Curriculum mapping: a before-and-after look at faculty perceptions of their courses and the mapping process. Journal of Food Science Education, 15, 63–99. Osman, R. B., &Swain, M. V. (2015). A Critical Review of Dental Implant Materials with an Emphasis on Titanium versus Zirconia. Materials (Basel), 8(3), 932–958. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5455450/citedby/. Plaza, C. M., Draugalis, J. R., Slack, M. K., Skrepnek, G. H., & Sauer, K. A. (2007). Curriculum mapping in program assessment and evaluation. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(2), 1–8. Rey, C., Combes, C., Drouet, C., et al. (2011). Bioactive Ceramics: Physical Chemistry. In P. Ducheyne, K.  E. Healy, D.  W. Hutmacher, D.  W. Grainger & C.  J. Kirkpatrick (eds.) Comprehensive Biomaterials, Elsevier, Amsterdam et al., 1, 187–221. Re- trieved from https://www.elsevier.com/books/comprehensive-biomaterials/ducheyne/ 978-0-08-055302-3. Rodella, L. F., Favero, G., & Labanca, M. (2011). Biomaterials in Maxillofacial Surgery: Membranes and Grafts. International journal of Biomedical science, 7(2), 81–88. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/Rudite/Downloads/Biomaterials_in_ Maxillofacial_Surgery_Membranes_an.pdf. Roveri, N., & Iafisco, M. (2010). Evolving application of biomimetic nanostructured hydroxyapatite. Nanotechnology, Science and Applications, 3, 107–125. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.860.8544&rep=rep1& type=pdf. Steketee, C. (2015). Prudentia: A medical school’s solution to curriculum mapping and curriculum management Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 12(4), 1–10. Uchiyama, K. P., & Radin, J. L. (2009). Curriculum Mapping in Higher Education: A Vehicle for Collaboration. Innovative Higher Education, 33(4), 271–280. Valsts izglītības satura centrs [National Centre for Education of the  Republic of Latviašeit anglisko tulkojumu]. (2012). Zobārsta profesijas standarts [Dentist’s Professional Standardšeit anglisko tulkojumu]. Retrieved from https://visc.gov.lv/profizglitiba/ dokumenti/standarti/ps0481.pdf. 703Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 EXPLORING POSSIBILITIES OF TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING IN CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION: A LITERATURE REVIEW Reinis Upenieks University of Latvia, Latvia ABSTRACT Changes are inevitable part of all walks of life; adults from different professions more often than ever face new challenges when previous knowledge, skills and attitudes are ineffective. Transformative learning approaches could be of a  great value in order to foster changes within a person – necessity in contemporary world. It is also true for medicine and medical professionals. However, longstanding traditions of medical education have established fundamentals, like, reliance on individual’s professional performance rather than teamwork; sanctity of hardly acquired knowledge and fixed techniques rather than learning from error and continuous improvement. As an adult educator himself, the  author of this paper is interested in transformative learning possibilities within field of continuing medical education. By conducting a literature review the author seeks to answer the following question: what is the scope and the nature of research and studies devoted to transformative learning in continuing medical education? As a result of three tiers of search queries, 16 articles have been included in the  literature review. Main ideas of the  studies reviewed are discussed in this paper. Several strains can be recognized: Operational level of introducing transformative learning in continuing medical education; Conceptual (theoretical) frameworks of possible introduction of transformative learning within continuing medical education; Transformative learning within under- graduate or graduate study context; Importance of self-monitoring and self-reflection of medical professionals; Importance of continuing medical education to adopt new teaching and learning approaches. Keywords. Transformative learning; Continuing medical education; Literature review. Introduction Adults from different professions more often than ever face new challenges when previous knowledge, skills and attitudes are ineffective. Transformative learning, according to the author of the transformative learning theory, Jack Mezirow, is “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference  – sets of fixed assumptions and expectations (habits https://doi.org/10.22364/atee.2019.itre.51 Reinis Upenieks Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... 704 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 of mind, meaning perspectives, mindsets) – to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, reflective, and emotionally able to change” (Mezirow, 2003, 58). Such an approach could be of a  great value in contemporary, changing world. There are hopeful expectations that education systems now from pre-school to university levels incorporate at least basic principles of transformative learning in order to prepare students for their upcoming life, also known as VUCA world. It is also true for medicine and medical professionals. However, for those already grounded in their profession for years there is additional challenge: longstanding traditions of medical education have established fundamentals, like, reliance on individual’s professional performance rather than teamwork; sanctity of hardly acquired knowledge and fixed techniques rather than learning from error and continuous improvement. Continuing professional development, namely, continuing medical education is the branch where, according to the believe of the author of this paper, it is important to introduce and to strengthen ideas of transformative learning, thus improving performance of medical professionals and ultimately, outcomes for patients. What is done so far? In order to learn recent developments of transformative learning in the field of continuing medical education, author of this paper decided to conduct respective literature review. Searching tool, strategies, and results Searching tool deployed for the  research was Primo Discovery service provided by ExLibris Group (a ProQuest Company) for University of Latvia. It is an effective tool for discovery and delivery information resources as it runs simultaneous search within all databases (Table 1) accessible for author’s Alma Mater. Table 1. List of databases accessible for University of Latvia (as on June 1, 2019) Name of database Dawsonera EBSCO EBSCO Central & Eastern European Academic Source Emerald JSTOR LETA LETA – Arhīvs 705Reinis Upenieks. Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... Name of database Letonika Nozare.lv OECD iLibrary Oxford Journals ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global ProQuest Ebook Central Researcher ID (Thomson Reuters) SAGE Journals Online SAGE Research Methods ScienceDirect Scopus SpringerLink Taylor & Francis Social Science & Humanities Library Times Higher Education Web of Science Two main key phrases for this research are: “transformative learning” and “continuing medical education”, so they were used in the search query, looking for both phrases in subject field. Search query 1 (Figure 1) revealed 6 results. All of them are articles in English from peer-review journals, published from 2007 to 2009. Although all six indicated having full text online, none of full texts were accessible for the author. Figure 1. Screenshot of Primo search entry page (search query 1) 706 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Such an exclusive list of articles (Galbraith, et al. 2008; Ranson, et al., 2007; Mcwilliam, 2007; Dornan, 2008; Epstein, et al., 2008; Sargeant, 2009) seemed an underestimate of the topic, also given the fact that all six sources come from the  same journal. So, author of this paper decided to expand search query, allowing phrase “continuing medical education” to be searched within any field. Figure 2. Screenshot of Primo search entry page (search query 2) Search query two (Figure 2) revealed 40 results. All of them are articles in English from peer-review journals, published from 2007 to 2019. Thirty- three full-text sources out of 40 were accessible for the author of this paper. Six of non-accessible items were duplicates of search query one. As next, analysis of keywords and summaries of those articles was performed. Looking for articles containing medic* or nurs* in their keywords or summaries revealed 14 articles (including previously found 6 articles in search query one). List of these results are displayed in Table 2, citing articles along with their subjects / keywords and number of other articles citing them. 707Reinis Upenieks. Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... Table 2. Narrowed list of articles revealed by search query Two (filtered for medic* or nurs* in their keywords or summaries) Article Subjects / Keywords Number of articles citing this source1 Epstein, R., Siegel, D., & Silberman, J. (2008). Physicians Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Style Metacognition Medical Education Self Evaluation (Individuals) Clinical Experience Transformative Learning Neuropsychology Science Process Skills Professional Continuing Education Self Management Medicine Education 51 Sargeant, J. (2009). Professional Continuing Education Interprofessional Relationship Interdisciplinary Approach Social Theories Learning Theories Medical Education Health Personnel Transformative Learning Social Psychology Systems Approach Communities of Practice Reflection Medicine Education 36 Mcwilliam, C. (2007). Educational Change Transformative Learning Health Personnel Active Learning Professional Continuing Education Medical Research Research Utilization Health Services Organizational Culture Theory Practice Relationship Postsecondary Education Educational Innovation Medicine Education 21 Galbraith, R., Hawkins, R., & Holmboe, E. (2008). Medical Education Lifelong Learning Program Improvement Professional Continuing Education Relevance (Education) Change Strategies Program Effectiveness Metacognition Cognitive Style Transformative Learning Self Evaluation (Individuals) Medicine Education 13 Ranson, S., Boothby, J., Mazmanian, P., & Alvanzo, A. (2007). Medical Education Physicians Access to Information Program Effectiveness Use Studies Decision Support Systems Information Technology Portfolio Assessment Interviews Questionnaires Transformative Learning Professional Continuing Education Medicine Education 12 1 Number of other articles citing source are subject to change. Number reflected in the table has been fixed at the time of preparing this paper. 708 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Article Subjects / Keywords Number of articles citing this source1 Adamshick, & August-Brady. (2012). RN-BS Students Cultural Immersion Phenomenology Transformative Learning 9 Mcallister, M. (2011). Critical Reflection Transformative Education Transformative Learning Education 7 Brendel, W. (2009). Transformative Learning Narrative Medicine Clinical Dialogue End-of-Life Care Education 6 Macdonnell, J., & Macdonald, G. (2011). Transformative Learning Arts-Based Education Critical Reflection Education 6 Dornan, T. (2008). Medical Education Medical Students Self Evaluation (Individuals) Foreign Countries Professional Continuing Education Certification Technology Integration Intellectual History Educational Development Transformative Learning Self Management United Kingdom Medicine Education 5 Moon, P. (2008). Death Grief Terminal Condition Transformative Learning Medicine 4 Mcallister, M. (2015). Change Critical Theory Curriculum Nursing Education Transformative Learning 3 Sokol, R. G., & Shaughnessy, A. F. (2018). Continuing Education Educational Evidence–Based Medicine Learning Models Qualitative Research Transformative Learning 1 Mcallister, Levett- Jones, Petrini, & Lasater. (2016). Transformative Learning Ethical Comportment Film Teaching Strategy Nursing Students 1 There was also the  third search query performed in order to make certain not to miss any other applicable article: keeping phrase “continuing medical education” in subject field and looking for phrase “transformative learning” in any field. 709Reinis Upenieks. Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... Figure 3. Screenshot of Primo search entry page (search query 3) Such search query revealed 33 items. Refining by English language and Peer-reviewed categories made list of 27 items. Again, six of them were the  same duplicates as in search queries one and two. The  remaining 21 items were filtered by looking for transformative learning within their abstracts / notes. It resulted in finding 2 articles (Table 3). Table 3. Additional matching articles after search query three Article Subjects / Keywords Number of articles citing this source2 Skipper, M., Musaeus, P., & Nahr, S. (2016). Continuing Medical Education – Research Patient Care – Research Ambulatory Care Facilities – Research 16 Holmboe, E. (2008). Education Medical Continuing Assessment Physicians‐In‐ Practice Quality Of Care 5 As a result of three search queries applied, there are 16 articles found and included in further review. Nine full texts were accessible for the author at the  time of preparation of this article; for other seven  – abstract level information was analysed. 2 Number of other articles citing source are subject to change. Number reflected in the table has been fixed at the time of preparing this paper. 710 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Discussion For transformative learning to happen, there is absolute necessity of self-conscious meta-cognitive processes to take part. This is acknowledged challenge for medical educators, for instance, in most cited article (of those included in this literature review) about physicians’ self-monitoring in clinical practice (Epstein, et al., 2008). It is stressed that self-monitoring is an important component of the professional competence of physicians. Also – thinking of “facts” as conditional, experiencing information as novel, seeing situations from multiple perspectives, suspending categorization and judgment, and engaging in self-questioning – are contrasted to being on” automatic pilot” or “mindless” in physicians’ behaviour (Epstein, et al., 2008). Theoretical point is clear; however, how it could be fostered operationally in continuing medical education, is not discovered. Another example of concise, still, theoretical conclusion is the  one requiring continuing medical education to adopt new content, recognize new knowledge, and use new approaches for learning in order to strengthen interprofessional education (Sargeant, 2009). What one could find missing, is place and experience of actual participants of continuing medical education events designed for interprofessional collaboration. Answer to that, at least, partly, can be found in another article promoting transformative knowledge translation (Mcwilliam, 2007). The article presents theory-based strategy for continuing medical education where clinicians are engaged in an on-the-job process of developing a  deeply felt interest in research findings relevant to everyday practice, as well as ownership of that knowledge and its application (Mcwilliam, 2007). The role of continuing educator is described quite clear, and even missionary – to foster a learning organization culture across the institution; the role of learner is a bit inscrutable. Right to the point of learner’s perspective are Galbraith, et al., (2008). They acknowledge that although self-assessment is an important mechanism for lifelong learning and self-improvement for health care professionals, however, there is growing concern that individual learners often interpret the  results inaccurately. In the  course of the  article they prove that self- assessment can and should be made more effective. They believe that impact should be reinforced by linking the  results of self-assessment to subsequent learning activities including continuing medical education (Galbraith, et al., 2008). A bit distant from previous, still in connection to self-assessment is review of use of personal digital assistants (PDAs) by practising physicians (Ranson, et al., 2007). Among the value of PDAs in accessing information for making clinical decisions and for patient education, PDA use for learning portfolio 711Reinis Upenieks. Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... intended to encourage documentation of reflection on practice and medical education was mentioned. It is remarkable that they mention: “Access to information is important, but it is not a predictor of change. Reflection, as a  form of mental processing, allows physicians to make information and knowledge more meaningful” (Ranson, et al., 2007, p. 229). The difference between ‘continuing medical education’ and ‘continuing professional development’ is stressed in “Self-Assessment in CPD: Lessons from the UK Undergraduate and Postgraduate Education Domains” (Dornan, 2008). Dornan argues that continuing professional development explicitly links education to change in practice and gives self-assessment (especially in the  form of reflection) a  central place in personal development. In the  abstract of the  article is said that it considers how a  positive system of self-assessment and professional self-regulation could be operationalized (Dornan, 2008), so it is even more unfortunate that the  author of this review did not have access to the full text. Assessment of the  practicing physician is also discussed in Holmboe’s respective article (Holmboe, 2008). There are two forces highlighted: pressure to change the nature of continuing medical education and pressure to hold individual physicians more accountable for the care they provide. Holmboe argues that comprehensive physician assessment provides such an opportunity, and many assessment methods and tools exist that can facilitate the  integration of continuing medical education and quality. Holmboe writes: “Using a  multifaceted physician‐level performance assessment system has substantial potential to align the public’s need and desire to ensure their physician is competent, at a minimum, with providing the physician with meaningful, actionable information and data to improve performance and engage in transformative learning” (Holmboe, 2008, p.4). However, it was not possible for the author of this review to explore how exactly Holmboe suggests physicians to engage in transformative learning or other aspects of continuing medical education. Transformative learning example is described through cultural immersion experience for nursing students in Adamshick & August-Brady (2012). It is convincing that there are positive short- and long-term effects on the  personal and professional lives of the  participants after week- long immersion; however, it’s possible translation to continuing medical education is not so clear. Another article mainly devoted to nursing study process is discussing Transformative Learning Framework for nurse educators (Mcallister, 2011). Although continuing medical education is not explicitly mentioned in the article, several main ideas could be ‘borrowed’ for implementation as well in continuing medical education. Like, for educators to allow those learning to experience disorienting dilemmas rather than protect from these. 712 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 It is valuable because can become a  trigger for deep learning, reflection and arriving at new understandings, thus better equip learners for future practice and for the advancement of the profession (Mcallister, 2011). An interesting example of transformative learning is found in an article describing Change Laboratory intervention to implement changes in paediatric outpatient clinic (Skipper, et al., 2016). Although it doesn’t claim itself to be continuing medical education example (in its most often used sense), it pictures a  great example of workplace learning. Indeed,  – “because the  cultural and technological practice of a medical department constantly change, medical researchers and practitioners need tools to analyse and intervene in a  department’s practice of care and continuing education” (Skipper, et al., 2016, p. 2). There is only one study capturing the  lived experience of attendees of a continuing medical education course (Sokol & Shaughnessy, 2018). It is done using hermeneutic phenomenological approach through individual interviews, focus groups, and observations. It is underlined that for behaviour change to occur, participants often need to consciously reject previous ideas and transform their way of thinking. Indeed, participants of this study described how taking part in the  continuing medical education course evoked strong emotional responses, facilitated personal transformation, and propelled expedited behaviour change resulting in a  newfound sense of self-efficacy, confidence, and ownership in their ability to make medical decisions. It is concluded that transformative learning opportunities would promote translation into practice if learners are supported while going through personalized meaning-making process (Sokol & Shaughnessy, 2018). Among others, an article found to be very informative, even if not seen as such from the surface, is Brendel’s Framework for narrative-driven transformative learning in medicine (Brendel, 2009). Superficially looking, it talks about patient learning experiences and puts clinician into role of teacher. However, there is a  thread throughout the  article aiming to show almost endless possibilities for clinicians to learn themselves. One could argue that there is no reference to continuing medical education in the article. Yes, it’s true; however, touching the thread opens understanding that clinicians are learning every day together with their patients. For instance, “With each grave prognosis, health care practitioners themselves should strive for a deeper understanding (..). Maintaining a learning journal will not only inform subsequent encounters with dying patients but may also be shared effectively in communities of practice within hospitals and similar institutions” (Brendel, 2009, pp. 40–41). Likewise, conversations between physicians and their patients concerning terminal conditions are seen as transformative learning source 713Reinis Upenieks. Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... in Moon’s article (Moon, 2008). Acknowledging that such encounters comprise complex grief dynamics, they are also described as opportunities for personal insights for physicians, and their more authentic presence. Transformative learning is emphasized throughout the article, although not always mentioning the term itself, e.g., saying that physicians’ commitment to a  lifelong agenda of refining their world-view orientation is crucial (Moon, 2008). Transformative changes are possible if we consciously acknowledge them. Why don’t make it part of continuing medical education? Challenges are clearly stated in the  article discussing arts-based critical inquiry in nursing and interdisciplinary professional education (Macdonnell  & Macdonald, 2011): (a) many competing priorities within contemporary competency-based professional curricula; (b) processes, which foster construction of knowledge and relationships among learners, affirming emotional dimensions of learning and cognitive uncertainty, are in direct contrast to the prevailing view of critical inquiry in health professions (nursing, medicine); (c) although many educators have employed narrative and other arts-based approaches to address diversity and interpersonal relationships, this approach is not always visible in mainstream professional education; (d) interactive small group learning contrasts sharply with superficial and strategic learning which are often the  default learning modes in medical education (Macdonnell & Macdonald, 2011). Margaret McAllister, nursing teacher, shares her vision for nursing educators to come together in communities of practice to talk about the  challenging aspects of nursing and ways these challenges can be reframed and reapproached through education. She clearly states that her vision is underpinned by the  pedagogy of Transformative Learning. In her article she discusses the courage necessary to teach a values-based curriculum. Arguing the value of a pedagogy for nursing that moves beyond a preoccupation with techniques and medical knowledge, she also does not dismiss this learning (McAllister, 2015). It would be interesting to find out her views regarding continuing medical education, what has not been of special attention in reviewed article. However, there is another publication co-authored by McAllister (McAllister, et al., 2016), where they discuss implementing learning experiences that challenge nursing students to think deeply and broadly about the  experiences they encounter, to question their previous assumptions and prejudices, to consider the  world of healthcare through a  new lens, and to reflect on and learn from the  process. There is presentation of film exemplars and related teaching strategies designed to facilitate transformative learning and development of ethical comportment in the  article (McAllister, et al., 2016). Although continuing medical 714 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 education is not explicitly mentioned, motivated educator could find at least inspiration for possible use of methods described in the article also in continuing medical education. Conclusion There were 16 articles reviewed in order to find out the  scope and the  nature of research and studies devoted to transformative learning in continuing medical education. Characteristics of articles included in this literature review: Language – English Peer-reviewed – yes Published (years) – 2007–2018 There was substantial motivation to carry out this literature review for the author being adult educator working in continuing medical education and recently growing his own interest in transformative learning. The first finding is surprising: there are only few studies clearly stating both  – transformative learning and continuing medical education  – as their keywords. (Anecdotally, none of those were accessible in full text for the author.) Although it was expectation to find more studies discussing operational level of introducing transformative learning in continuing medical education, it was only one article found capturing the lived experience of attendees of a continuing medical education course: Sokol & Shaughnessy (2018). A bit distant from that, with possible practical implications, is study where participants were encouraged to use personal digital assistants also for documentation of reflection on practice and medical education (Ranson, et  al., 2007), and example of workplace learning involving elements of transformative learning (Skipper et al., 2016). Conceptual (theoretical) frameworks of possible introduction of transformative learning within continuing medical education are discussed in several studies (Mcwilliam, 2007; Mcallister, 2011; Brendel, 2009). Some of studies are depicturing transformative learning within under- graduate or graduate study context, mainly  – in nursing (Adamshick & August-Brady, 2012; Mcallister, 2011; Macdonnell & Macdonald, 2011; McAllister, 2015; McAllister, et al., 2016). There are studies highlighting the  importance of self-monitoring and self-reflection of medical professionals for transformational learning to take place (Epstein, et al., 2008; Galbraith, et al., 2008; Ranson, et  al., 2007; Holmboe, 2008). Some of them are courageous enough to admit 715Reinis Upenieks. Exploring Possibilities of Transformative Learning ... that individual learners might interpret self-assessment results inaccurately (Galbraith, et al., 2008); others highlighting patient learning and subsequently – physician learning (Brendel, 2009; Moon, 2008). Another strain of studies underlines importance of continuing medical education to adopt new teaching and learning approaches (Sargeant, 2009; Dornan, 2008; Macdonnell & Macdonald, 2011; McAllister, 2015; McAllister, et al., 2016), even suggesting ‘continuing professional development’ as more accurate term instead of ‘continuing medical education’ (Dornan, 2008). In conclusion let me quote one of the articles reviewed: “Creating spaces for collective dialogue and deep reflection seems more urgent than it has ever been” (Macdonnell & Macdonald, 2011, p. 217). Now this seems to be appropriate slogan for transformative learning to be introduced more into continuing medical education. References Adamshick, & August-Brady. (2012). Reclaiming the Essence of Nursing: The Meaning of an Immersion Experience in Honduras for RN to Bachelor of Science Students. Journal of Professional Nursing, 28(3), 190–198. Brendel, W. (2009). A  Framework for Narrative-Driven Transformative Learning in Medicine. Journal of Transformative Education, 7(1), 26–43. Dornan, T. (2008). Self-Assessment in CPD: Lessons from the  UK Undergraduate and Postgraduate Education Domains. Journal of Continuing Education in the  Health Professions, 28(1), 32–37. Epstein, R., Siegel, D., & Silberman, J. (2008). Self-Monitoring in Clinical Practice: A  Challenge for Medical Educators. Journal of Continuing Education in the  Health Professions, 28(1), 5–13. Galbraith, R., Hawkins, R., & Holmboe, E. (2008). Making Self-Assessment More Effective. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 28(1), 20–24. Holmboe, E. (2008). Assessment of the  Practicing Physician: Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 28(S1), S4–S10. Macdonnell, J., & Macdonald, G. (2011). Arts-Based Critical Inquiry in Nursing and Interdisciplinary Professional Education: Guided Imagery, Images, Narratives, and Poetry. Journal of Transformative Education, 9(4), 203–221. Mcallister, Levett-Jones, Petrini, & Lasater. (2016). The  viewing room: A  lens for developing ethical comportment. Nurse Education in Practice, 16(1), 119–124. Mcallister, M. (2011). STAR: A Transformative Learning Framework for Nurse Educators. Journal of Transformative Education, 9(1), 42–58. Mcallister, M. (2015). Exploring transformative learning and the  courage to teach a values based curriculum. Nurse Education in Practice, 15(6), 480–484. Mcwilliam, C. (2007). Continuing Education at the  Cutting Edge: Promoting Transformative Knowledge Translation. Journal of Continuing Education in the  Health Professions, 27(2), 72–79. 716 Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Mezirow, J. (2003). Transformative learning as discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(1): 58–63. doi:10.1177/1541344603252172. Moon, P. (2008). Death-Talks: Transformative Learning for Physicians. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 25(4), 271–277. Ranson, S., Boothby, J., Mazmanian, P., & Alvanzo, A. (2007). Use of Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) in Reflection on Learning and Practice. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 27(4), 227–233. Sargeant, J. (2009). Theories to Aid Understanding and Implementation of Interprofessional Education. Journal of Continuing Education in the  Health Professions, 29(3), 178–184. Skipper, M., Musaeus, P., & Nahr, S. (2016). The  paediatric change laboratory: Optimising postgraduate learning in the  outpatient clinic. BMC Medical Education, 16(42), N/a. Sokol, R. G., & Shaughnessy, A. F. (2018). Making the  most of continuing medical education: Evidence of transformative learning during a  course in evidence-based medicine and decision making. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 38(2), 102–109. Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education, 2019 Izdevējs: LU Akadēmiskais apgāds Aspazijas bulv. 5–132, Rīga, LV-1050 www.apgads.lu.lv